Manchurians - Political, Social, Cultural, Historical Analysis Of China -- Research Into Origins Of Huns, Uygurs, Mongols And Tibetans

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REAL STORY: A Study Group Is Crushed in China's Grip Beliefs Are Tested in Saga Of Sacrifice and Betrayal	Chinese ver

*** Translation, Tradducion, Ubersetzung , Chinese

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Tragedy Of Chinese Revolution

The Enemy From Within; Huangqiao Battle; Wan-nan Incident
1945-1949 Civil War
Liao-Shen, Xu-Beng, Ping-Jin Yangtze Campaigns
Korean War Vietnamese War

Japanese Ichigo Campaign & Stilwell Incident
Lend-Lease; Yalta Betrayal: At China's Expense
Acheson 2 Billion Crap ; Cover-up Of Birch Murder
Marshall's Dupe Mission To China, & Arms Embargo
Chiang Kai-shek's Money Trail

The Wuhan Gang, including Joseph Stilwell, Agnes Smedley, Evans Carlson, Frank Dorn, Jack Belden, S.T. Steele, John Davies, David Barrett and more, were the core of the Americans who were to influence the American decision-making on behalf of the Chinese communists. It was not something that could be easily explained by Hurley's accusation in late 1945 that American government had been hijacked by i) imperialists and ii) communists. At play was not a single-thread Russian or Comintern conspiracy against the Republic of China but an additional channel that was delicately knit by the sohphiscated Chinese communist saboteurs to employ the above-mentioned Americans for their cause

The Wuhan Gang & The Chungking Gang, i.e., the offsprings of the American missionaries, diplomats, military officers, 'revolutionaries' & Red Saboteurs and "Old China Hands" of 1920s and the herald-runners of the Dixie Mission of 1940s.

Wang Bingnan's German wife, Anneliese Martens, physically won over the hearts of Americans by providing the wartime 'bachelors' with special one-on-one service per Zeng Xubai's writings.

Though, Anna Wang [Anneliese Martens], in her memoirs, expressed jealousy over Gong Peng by stating that the Anglo-American reporters had flattered the Chinese communists and the communist movement as a result of being entranced with the goldfish-eye'ed personal assistant of Zhou Enlai

Stephen R. Mackinnon & John Fairbank invariably failed to separate fondness for the Chinese revolution from fondness for Gong Peng, the Asian fetish who worked together with Anneliese Martens to infatuate American wartime reporters.

Xia Dynasty	22-17th c. BC ¹
	2070-1600 BC ²
	2207-1766 BC ³
Shang Dynasty	17 c.-1122 BC ¹
	1600-1046 BC ²
	1765-1122 BC ³
Western Zhou	1134 - 771 BC ¹
	1046 - 771 BC ²
	1121 - 771 BC ³
Eastern Zhou	770-256 BC
Eastern Zhou	770-249 BC ³
Sping & Autumn	722-481 BC
Sping & Autumn	770-476 BC ³
Warring States	403-221 BC
Warring States	476-221 BC ³
Qin Statelet	900s?-221 BC
Qin Dynasty	221-206 BC
Qin Dynasty	248-207 BC ³
Western Han	206 BC-23 AD
Xin (New)	9-23 AD
Western Han	23-25 AD
Eastern Han	25-220
Three Kingdoms	Wei 220-265
Three Kingdoms	Shu 221-263
Three Kingdoms	Wu 222-280
Western Jinn	265-316
Eastern Jinn	317-420
16 Nations	304-420
Cheng Han	Di 301-347
Hun Han (Zhao)	Hun 304-329 ss
Anterior Liang	Chinese 317-376
Posterior Zhao	Jiehu 319-352 ss
Anterior Qin	Di 351-394 ss
Anterior Yan	Xianbei 337-370
Posterior Yan	Xianbei 384-409
Posterior Qin	Qiang 384-417 ss
Western Qin ss	Xianbei 385-431
Posterior Liang	Di 386-403
Southern Liang	Xianbei 397-414
Northern Liang	Hun 397-439
Southern Yan	Xianbei 398-410
Western Liang	Chinese 400-421
Hunnic Xia	Hun 407-431 ss
Northern Yan	Chinese 409-436
North Dynasties	386-581
Northern Wei	386-534
Eastern Wei	534-550
Western Wei	535-557
Northern Qi	550-577
Northern Zhou	557-581
South Dynasties	420-589
Liu Song	420-479
Southern Qi	479-502
Liang	502-557
Chen	557-589
Sui Dynasty	581-618
Tang Dynasty	618-690
Wu Zhou	690-705
Tang Dynasty	705-907
Five Dynasties	907-960
Posterior Liang	907-923
Posterior Tang	923-936
Posterior Jinn	936-946
Posterior Han	947-950
Posterior Zhou	951-960
10 Kingdoms	902-979
Wu	902-937 Nanking
Shu	907-925 Sichuan
Nan-Ping	907-963 Hubei
Wu-Yue	907-978 Zhejiang
Min	907-946 Fukien
Southern Han	907-971 Canton
Chu	927-956 Hunan
Later Shu	934-965 Sichuan
Southern Tang	937-975 Nanking
Northern Han	951-979 Shanxi
Khitan Liao	907-1125
Northern Song	960-1127
Southern Song	1127-1279
Western Xia	1032-1227
Jurchen Jin (Gold)	1115-1234
Mongol Yuan	1279-1368
Ming Dynasty	1368-1644
Manchu Qing	1644-1912
R.O.C.	1912-1949
R.O.C. Taiwan	1949-present
P.R.C.	1949-present

   Escape from
   Hengyang by
  Qiong Yao

JURCHENS & MANCHURIANS

To expound the myth of Koreans and the Altaic-speaking people, most recent DNA analysis needs to be incorporated. Doctorate Li Hui from Fudan University of China had analyzed the DNA of Asians to derive a conclusion that the ancestors of Mongoloid Asians possessed a distinctive Mark M89 by the time they arrived in Southeast Asia. About 30,000 years ago, from the launching pad of Southeast Asia, the early Mongoloids went through a genetic mutation to Marker M122.

Li Hui, at http://web.wenxuecity.com/BBSView.php?SubID=memory&MsgID=56818, claimed that the early migrants to the Chinese continent took three routes via two entries of Yunnan and Guangxi-Guangdong provinces.

In the timeframe of about 10,000 years and developing a genetic mutation to marker M134, this branch of people who went direct north would penetrate the snowy Hengduan Mountains of Tibetan-Qinghai Plateau to arrive at the area next to the Yellow River bends. Owning to cold weather, big nose, heavy lips and long face developed among this group of people. Splitting out of this northbound migrants would be those who went to the east with a new genetic marker M117, i.e., ancestors of modern Han Chinese. However, our ancestors forgot that they penetrated northward the Hengduan Mountains from the Indo-China "CORRIDOR" in today's Vietnam. "Walking down Mt Kunlun", i.e., the "collective memory of ethnic Han Chinese" that was echoed in Guo Xiaochuan's philharmonic-agitated epic, was the starting point of the eastward migration which our Chinese ancestors remembered. Li Hui grouped the 3000-year-old Chu and Qi people in the same category as Han Chinese, albeit meeting the ancient classics records as to Qi statelet's lineage from the Qiangic-Tibetan Fiery Lord. The rest would develop into ancestors of today's Tibetans. This seems to corroborate with Scholar Luo Xianglin's claim that early Sino-Tibetan peoples originated from Mt Minshan and upperstream River Min-jiang areas of Sichuan-Gansu provincial borderline and then split into two groups, with one going north to reach Wei-shui River and upperstream Han-shui River of Shenxi Prov and then east to Shanxi Prov by crossing the Yellow River.

The second branch of early Mongoloids, about 10,000 years ago, entered China's southeastern coastline with genetic marker M119. Li Hui, claiming the same ancestry as the Dai-zu and Shui-zu minorities of Southwestern China, firmly believed that his ancestors had dwelled in Hangzhou Bay and Yangtze Delta for 7-8 thousand years. The people with M119 marker would be the historical "Hundred Yue Peoples". Li Hui then pointed out that the ancient Wu people, with M7 genetic marker, came to the lower Yangtze area about 3000 years ago. While Li Hui claimed that the M7 Wu people had split away from the northbound M134 Sino-Tibetan people, historical classics pointed out that Wu Statelet was established by two uncles of Zhou Dynasty King Wenwang, i.e., migrants from the Yellow River area.

The last interesting theory adopted by Li Hui would be still one more possible Mongoloid branch of people who, at about 20,000 years, continued to travel non-stop along the Chinese coastline to reach the Liao-he River area of Manchuria where they developed into Altaic-speaking peoples, i.e., ancestors of Huns, Turks and Mongols. This claim did corroborate with this webmaster's historical analysis of Huns, Turks and Mongols which yielded the conclusion that i) there was no through traffic from west to east in the Gobi or the Steppe in early times and that ii) the Mongoloid had a pattern of raiding to the west, not the other way around by the Indo-Europeans. Today's Koreans, in the opinion of Li Hui, would be the mixtures of the early migrants to Manchuria and the later Dong-yi [Eastern Yi] migrants from Eastern China. This certainly dealt a blow to the Korean nationalists' claim of "Siberian origin". (See Assertions By Wang Zhonghan for clues as to the relationship between Qiangic Proto-Tibetan and Altaic Proto-Hun activities: "the northern barbarians and western barbarians were similar [i.e., Qiangs] at Spring-Autumn time period, but by the time of late Warring States, Chinese began to see the northern barbarians as different from the western barbarians".)

In Chinese history, the Manchurians are classified into "Anterior Jurchen" and "Posterior Jurchen". "Anterior Jurchen" would be those Jurchens who defeated the Khitans' Liao Dynasty (AD 907-1125), and set up the Jin or Gold Dynasty (AD 1115-1234) that lasted 119-120 years in northern China. "Posterior Jurchen" was the name first adopted by the Manchus when they rebelled against the Chinese Ming Dynasty. They renamed themselves Manchu in the early 17th cent. In the Turk & Uygur section, we mentioned that the famous writer, Jian Bozan, who committed suicide during the Cultural Revolution, happened to be an ethnic Uygur from Hunan Province. Another famous writer, Lao She, who also committed suicide during the Cultural Revolution, was an ethnic Manchu.

Origin Of Jurchens

The Jurchens are a group of people who lived in Manchuria for many centuries and the tribal name was known since the 7th cent according to one account. The book History Of Jurchen Jin Dynasty, written by Yuan's Prime Minnister Toktoghan (Tuo Tuo), recorded that the ancestors of the Jurchens were from the tribe called Wuji [Huji] or Mohe (Malgal) which was located in the land of the ancient state of Sushen bordering the Japan Sea.

Sushen-shi & Dongyi (Eastern Yi) Aliens
We mentioned the Sushen State in the Korean section. Sushen Statelet first submitted their renowned arrows and bows to Lord Shun during the 25th reign of Lord Shun (reign 2257-2208 BC ?), and Sushen continued to pay pilgrimage to Zhou Dynasty later. (Note Sushen's sound is close to Korean pronounciation of 'Choson'.) Also on record would be a statelet called Guzhu (i.e., lonely bamboo) in southern Manchuria. It was said that Zhou Dynasty founder, Ji Chang, would manage his statelet so well that old people went there for retirement, and two princes of Guzhu Statelet (Mo-tai-shi clan) in southern Manchuria, Bo-yi and Shu-qi, came to live in Zhou land. The barbarians closer to Chinese would be called Shan-rong or Mountain Rongs (aka Beirong or Wuzhong) in the northeastern China. Mountain Rongs, at one time, went across the Yan Principality of Hebei Province to attack Qi Principality in today's Shandong Province; 44 years after that, they attacked Yan again; the Yan-Qi joint armies, under the command of Qi Counsellor Guan Zhong, Marquis Qi Huanggong, and Byron Yan, drove them out and moreover penetrated into the Rong land. Around 664 BC, Yan-Qi joint armies destroyed the Mountain Rong Statelet as well as the Guzhu Statelet. During Warring States time period, the barbarians came to be known as Dong Hu or Eastern Hu people. A Yan Principality General, by the name of Qin-kai, after returning from Donghu as a hostage, would attack Donghu and drive them away for 1000 li distance. Yan built Great Wall and set up Shanggu, Yuyang, You-beiping, Liaoxi and Liaodong prefectures. Sushen tribe was later known as Yilou. Chinese history recorded succeeding names like Wuji [Huji], Mohe, Bohai and Nuzhen tribes in the same area.

Ancient Chinese had different terms for barbarians in four directions. Dongyi or Yi-of-the-East will include peoples in Manchuria, Korea and Japan. In early times, the Yi was associated with the word 'niao' for bird, and there were eight to nine different 'niao-yi' people in the east. Shang Dynasty people, considered a group of Yi people, were recorded to have treated 'Xuan Niao' (i.e., Black bird, possibly sparrow) as the totem. Manchurian legends as to the birth of their founder had something to do with swallowing the red fruit dropped by a bird. Toba Wei Dynasty, in return for being called the nickname of 'suo lu' (pigtailed enemies), would call southern Chinese by the derogatory name of 'niao yi' (i.e., bird-like aliens) for possibly southern Chinese accents or generic-kind of name for southeastern Chinese and islanders. In later times, the Yi designation would be associated with a word 'dao' for island, pointing to the barbarian peoples in East China Seas. (Both the character 'niao' and 'dao' looked quite close and might have corrupted consecutively during the course of history.) Yi is more an inclusive word to mean aliens. The big Korean school of thought, touched on in prehistory section, claimed that the Koreans were true descendants of the Dongyi people.

Wuji [Huji] & Mohe
At the times of Toba Wei Dynasty, Wuji [Huji] possessed altogether seven tribes. By Sui Dynasty, they were know as Mohe (Malgal). By Tang Dynasty, two tribes, Heisui (black water) and Sumuo, were known. Sumuo sought protection with Koguryo, and after Koguryo's demise in the hands of Tang, became independent and established the State of Po'hai (Palhae) around Dongmoushan Mountains. Po'hai continued for a dozen generations till it was destroyed by the Khitans. Note Bohai (Po'hai) was recorded to have possessed a written language, music and rituals, government and system, and it possessed five big cities, fifteen prefectures and sixty-two zhou (lesser prefectures). The Blackwater Tribe, who dwelled in the ancient Sushen land, also sought protection with Koguryo, and at one time, sent 150,000 troops to fight Tang on behalf of Koguryo. They were defeated by Tang in a place called An'shi. In the Kaiyuan Era of Tang Dynasty, Blackwater Tribe came to pay pilgrimage to Tang and its land was made into Heisui-fu (i.e., Blackwater Governor Office) and its tribal chieftan was conferred the title of 'dudu' or governor-general. Blackwater Tribe was given the Tang family name of 'Li'. After Po'hai became a strong power, this tribe became subordinate to the Sumuo Tribe. During Five Dynasties time period, Khitans took over the Po'hai, i.e., the former Sushen territories. The Blackwater Jurchens who remained in the south were subordinate to the Khitans and were named 'acquaintance Jurchens' or 'cooked Jurchens', while the remaining Jurchens living in the north, near today's Heilongjiang River, would be named 'stranger Jurchens' or 'raw Jurchens'.

Jurchens vs Tungus
The Jurchens are related to the Tungus. The Xianbei-Wuhuan nomads, said to be Tungunzic, were driven to Xianbei and Wuhuan Mountains after they accused the first Hunnic king Modu (Modok) of patricide, and they were later relocated to Liaoning Province by Han Emperor Wudi for sake of segregation from the Huns. Hence, they were called Donghu or Eastern Hu nomads, inheriting an old tribal name that long existed in Zhou times. The important thing to be noted about the earlier Huns or Donghu (Xianbei-Wuhuan) will be that they were living alongside Chinese for hundreds of years and should be deemed semi-sinicized semi-civilized peoples. But the later Khitans or Jurchens or Mongols fared much worse, and those people ate raw meat and did not know how to count their ages.

Chinese records categorically said that "the ancestry of the Manchus can be traced back more than 2,000 years to the Sushen tribe, and later to the Yilou, Wuji [Huji], Mohe and Ruzhen (Nuzhen) tribes native to the Changbaishan Mountains and the drainage area of the Heilongjiang River in northeast China." Here, the name Sushen would be used for ancient Koreans during Zhou Dynasty time period, Yilou during early Han Dynasty time period, Wuji [Huji] during Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty, Mohe (Malgal) during Sui Dynasty, Bohai (Palhae) during Tang Dynasty, and Ruzhen (Nuzhen) during Song Dynasty. (The Chinese way to tell the continuity of people in one area was unscientific: Sushen-shi was recorded to have sent in bows and arrows using stone arrowhead and promenade arrow-shaft during the 25th reign of Lord Shun [reign 2257-2208 BC ?]. When Marquis Chen-guo asked about a fallen eagle with a stone arrowhead, Confucius reminded the marquis of an early record on book stating that Sushen-shi had sent in arrow tributes to Zhou King Wuwang who subsequently subscribed Sushen-shi characters and allocated to various vassals as a gift. Marquis Chen-guo did locate the ancient arrow in storage and found it to be same. Sushen-shi, living in Manchuria bordering Japan Sea, had sent in tributes after Zhou King Wuwang built roads leading to four barbarian directions.)

Xianbei-Wuhuan

After the Hunnic decline in late first century AD, the Xianbei moved back to the old territories, between Yinshan Mountains and Yanshan Mountains. The Xianbei mixed up with the Huns. The Hunnic Xia Dynasty, established by Helian Bobo, was said to be of a mingle nature, called 'Tie Fu'. The Tie Fu Huns were born of Xianbei mother and Hunnic Father. There appeared a Xianbei chieftan called Tanshikui (reign AD 156-181) who established a Xianbei alliance by absorbing dozens of thousands of Huns. The Tanshikui alliance disintegrated after the death of Tanshikui. Another chieftan called Kebi'neng emerged. Ts'ao Ts'ao broke this new Xianbei alliance by sending an assasin to kill Kebi'neng. Warlord Yuan Shao campaigned against the Wuhuans and controlled three prefectures of Wuhuan nomads. After Ts'ao Ts'ao defeated Yuan Shao, Yuan's two sons, Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi fled to seek refuge with the Wuhuans. Ts'ao Ts'ao campaigned against the Wuhuan, killed a chieftan called Datu (with same last character as Hunnic Chanyu Motu or Modok), and took over the control of southern Manchuria. The Xianbei nomad, with major tribes of Murong, Yuwen, Duan, would establish many short-lived successive states along the Chinese frontier. Among these states was that of the Tuoba or Toba (T'o-pa in Wade-Giles), a subgroup of the Xianbei, in modern China's Shanxi Province.

The demise of Han Dynasty saw Xianbei and Wuhuan taking over the old territories from the Huns in the northern borders as well as invading into Korea Peninsula. Chen Shou comented that Ke'bineng Xianbei had at one time covered the territoties from the Liao River of Manchuria in the east to Yunzhong/Wuyuan in the west. Xianbei had prospered after Cao Cao conquered their kinsmen, i.e., Wuhuan. Wuhuan was absorbed by both Cao Cao and Xianbei, and its name disappeared thereafter, only to re-emerge in 10th century war with Khitans.

Several Wuhuan chieftans, including Qiuliju (Liaoxi Wuhuan Da Ren, with 5000 households), Nanlou (Shanggu Wuhuan Da Ren, with 9000 households), Supuyan (Liaodong Wuhuan Da Ren, with thousands of households) and Wuyan (You-beiping Wuhuan Da Ren, with 800 households), were controlled by a Han Chinese rebel governor called Zhang Chun of Zhongshan Prefecture. Han Emperor Lingdi (r. 168-189) assigned Liu Yu as governor-general of Youzhou (Beijing) and Liu Yu hired some nomads to have Zhang Chun killed. After the death of Chieftan Louban, an adopted son called Tadun (Tadu) took over the chieftan post. Tadun assisted Yuan Shao in the wars on Gongsun Zan. At one time during the Three Kingdoms time period, Yuan Shao had pacified three prefectures of Wuhuan and heavily recruited them as mercenary cavalry. Yuan Shao privately conferred the title of 'Chanyu' on Wuhuan chieftans in the name of Han court. When the son of Wuhuan Chieftan Qiuliju grew up, he would compete with Tadun for power. A Chinese by the name of Yan Rou (who enjoyed trust among among Wuhuan-Xianbei for his spending childhood years with the barbarians) would kill the Chinese colonel in charge of Wuhuan and ursurped the post. Yuan Shao retained Yan Rou as the 'Wuhuan Colonel'. Cao Cao later defeated Wuhuan chieftan by the name of Tadu (Tadun) who offered asylum to two sons of Yuan Shao. Cao Cao won over Yan Rou when he campained against Wuhuan in AD 206. Wuhuan chieftans were all decaptitated when they fled to Liaodong (east Liaoning Province) for asylum. Over 10,000 Wuhuan households under Yan Rou would relocate to China under the order of Cao Cao. Wuhuan people would serve Cao Cao as mercenary cavalry.

Two Xianbei tribal groups came into play, the Lesser Xianbei under Ke'bineng and Greater Xianbei under Budugeng and his brother Fuluohan. Ke'bineng heavily employed Chinese defectors and utilized Chinese weaponry and language. Ke'bineng had at one time assisted Cao Cao in cracking down on Tian Ying Rebellion, but he also rebelled against Cao Cao and Cao Wei Chinese several times. Cao Cao once sent Marquis Yanling to defeat Ke'bineng and cause him flee outside of Chinese border. In AD 219, Ke'bineng sent an emissary, with tributes of horses, to last Han Emperor Xiandi who was under Cao Cao protection. Cao Wei Emperor Wendi conferred Ke'bineng the title of King of Fuyi (attached loyalty). Beginning from AD 221, several times, Ke'bineng repatriated Cao Wei Chinese refugees back to Chinese territories. Ke'bineng rebelled against Cao Wei Chinese again because Tian Yu interferred in Ke'bineng wars with both Eastern Xienbei under Suli and Xianbei Chieftan under Budugeng. Ke'bineng complained about this to General Xianyu Fu, mentioning the fact that his brother was killed by Budugeng. Ke'bineng said he was recommended for the post by Yan Rou, he was grateful to Chinese and he did not want to rebel against Chinese simply because Tian Yu was giving him troubles. Ke'bineng boasted of over 100,000 cavalry. A Wuhuan chieftan at Dai Prefecture, by the name of Nengchendi, surrendered to Budugeng but also asked for protection from Ke'bineng. When the two Xianbei chiftans converged for controling the Wuhuan, Ke'bineng killed Fuluohan and took over the Xianbei people led by Fuluohan's son, Xie-guini. Hence, two Xianbei tribes warred with each other. Cao Wei Emperor Wendi (Cao Pi) conferred Tian Yu the post of 'Wuhuan Colonel' with extra authority over Xianbei people, and Tian Yu had his office situated at Changping (near Beijing). Ke'bineng would defeat all tribes including Wuhuan, extending their territories from Yunzhong & Wuyuan north of Shanxi border all the way to Manchuria. Ke'bineng defeated two Chinese generals, Tian Yu and Bi Gui. The other chieftan, Budugeng, relocated to Taiyuan and Yanmen with his over 10,000 households. Budugeng further sent a messenger to his niece Xie-guini and caused Xie-guini defect from Ke'bineng. By AD 224, Budugeng sought vassalage with Cao Wei Emepror Wendi. In AD 228, Tian Yu's emissary to Xianbei was killed by Ke'bineng's son-in-law. Hence, Tian Yu dispatched Pudou (Western Xianbei Chieftan ) and Xie-guini to attack Ke'bineng as a retaliation. When Ke'bineng encircled Tian Yu with 30,000 cavalry, Governor-General of Shanggu, Yan Zhi (Yan Rou's brother), went to see Ke'bineng and pursuaded Ke'bineng into a ceasefire. Later, the new governor-general of Youzhou, Wang Xiong, was conferred the post of 'Wuhuan Colonel'. Ke'bineng, several times, expressed loyalty to Wang Xiong. In AD 233, Ke'bineng won back Budugeng by means of an inter-marriage. Budugeng ordered Xie-guini to go back and serve under Ke'bineng, pillaging Chinese prefecture of Bingzhou. General Qin Lang counter-attacked, and Xie-guini surrendered and was conferred the title of King of Guiyi (i.e., returning loyalty) and the land of Bingzhou. Later, Budugeng was killed by Ke'bineng. Ke'bineng ordered his son go to Loufan to fight the wars with General Su Shang and Dong Bi (both under Governor Bi Gui of Bingzhou) and killed the two. During Qinglong Era, about 235 AD, Cao Wei Emperor Mingdi (Cao Rui) took the advice of Wang Xiong and had Ke'bineng assasinated by someone called Han Long. The brother of Ke'bineng was selected as the chieftan. In southern Manchuria, Eastern Xianbei enjoyed more head-count than Ke'bineng Xianbei. There would exist chieftans like Suli, Mijia and Jueji in Liaoxi (western Liaoning Prov), Youbeiping (northwest of Beijing) and Yuyang. Jueji's son was conferred the title of King Qinhan (befriending Han), and Suli's brother, Chengluegui, succeeded the King title, too.

Successors Of Xianbei-Wuhuan-Toba

After the Xianbei-Wuhuan-Toba disappeared into China's melting pot during the 16 Nations (AD 304-420), the newcomers from the northern hemisphere, together with the remaining Tunguzic peoples, would be occupying the eastern part of Mongolia and today's Machuria. In AD 443, the barbarians who took over Toba's old territories, upper Heilongjiang River and northern Xing'an Ridge, came to see Toba Wei Emperor (Toba Tao) and told him that they found Toba ancestor's stone house, called 'Ga Xian Dong'. Toba Tao sent a minister called Li Chang to the stone house which was carved out of a natural cavern. In 1980s, this cavern was discovered as well as the inscriptions left by Li Chang.

The peoples who dwelled in old Xianbei-Wuhuan-Toba territories would be the later Shiwei Tribes (ancestors of Mengwu Shiwei or Genghis Mongols), the Khitans, the Xi nomads, and the Mohe people etc. Among them would be the ancestors of later Jurchens or Mongols. The Khitans first appeared on the stage. New History Of Tang Dynasty mentioned that the Khitans were the descendants of the Kebi'neng Xianbei. (Alternatively, Old History Of Five Dynasties said that the Khitans were alternative race of the Huns.) New History Of Tang Dynasty said that by the time of Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty (AD 386-534), the ancestors of Khitans adopted the name 'Khitan' for themselves. Khitans lived around the Liao River in today's Manchuria. To the east of the Khitans will be Koguryo, to the west the Xi Nomads, to the north Mohe (Malgal) and Shiwei Tribes, and to the south Yingzhou Prefecture of Toba Wei Dynasty. Shiwei statelets would be where we are to trace the Mongols for their origin. Mohe (Malgal) would be where the Jurchens came from. New History Of Tang Dynasty said Khitans possessed eight tribes and they were subject to the Turks. The Eastern Turks assigned Khan Tuli in charge of Khitan and Wuji [Huji] tribes. The Khitan chieftan was conferred the title of 'Sijin' by the Turks. Around AD 620s, the Khitan chieftan came to see Tang's first Emperor, Tang Gaozu, together with a Wuji [Huji] chieftan. Khitans rebelled against the Turks and fled to Tang for asylum. In AD 628, Turks pleaded with Tang Emperor Taizong to have Khitans relocate back to Turk control, but Tang Taizong declined this request.

The Xi people, according to New History Of Tang Dynasty, were derived from the Tadu's Wuhuan (one branch of Eastern Hu nomads) who were defeated by Ts'ao Ts'ao during the Three Kingdoms time period. Alternatively, they were said to be a different race of the Huns. By the time of Toba Wei, Xi renamed themselves Kuzhen-xi and they borderd the Turks in the west and the Khitans in the northeast. By the time of Sui Dynasty, they changed their name back to Xi. A chieftan called Suzhi followed Tang Emperor Taizong in the Korean campaigns and was conferred the post of Governor-General of Raole, in charge of six prefectures. At one time, Xi followed the Khitans in rebelling against Tang, and Xi sent some captured Tang general to the Muchuo's Orchon Turks for execution. During the second year of Jaiyuan Era of Xuanzong, Tang Emperor Xuanzong once sent a Tang Princess Gu'an to the Xi chieftan and conferred the title of King of Raole. Xi chieftan came to Tang capital the second year for the marriage. More Tang princesses would be married to Xi chieftans. By the 4th year of Zhenyuan Era, Xi joined Shiwei in attacking Zhengwu Governor office. Xi also joined Huihe and Shiwei in attacking Chinese Turkistan. In the first year of Dazhong Era, Tang General Zhang Zhongwu defeated the Xi and burnt 200,000 tents. When Khitans got strengthened, Xi submitted to the Khitans. Badly treated by Khitans, Xi fled to Tang and was assigned to Guizhou Prefecture, and they split into Eastern Xi and Western Xi.

The Shiwei people were said to be alternative race of the Khitans, according to New History Of Tang Dynasty. They could be related to the ancient 'Dingling' people (while Dingling was said to be derived from the ancient Chidi people). They shared the same language as Mohe people. They dwelled in upper Heilongjiang River, to the east of the Turks, the west of Mohe, and the north of the Khitans. There were over 20 Shiwei tribes on record, including Mengwu Shiwei. They first came to Tang Dynasty during the 5th year of Tang Emperor Taizong's reign. Shiwei came to Tang court over a dozen time. By the 4th year of Zhenyuan Era, Xi joined Shiwei in attacking Zhengwu Governor office.

Blackwater Wuji [Huji] dwelled in the old land of Sushen, aka Yilou. They were renamed Mohe (Malgal) during Toba Wei Dynasty. They connected with Koguryo in the south, around today's Changbaishan Mountains, and connected with Shiwei in the north. During the second year of Tang Emperor Taizong, i.e., 628 AD, their land was made into Yanzhou Prefecture. They joined Koguryo in resisting Tang. During the tenth year of Kaiyuan Era, i.e., 722 AD, Tang Emperor Xuanzhong set up Heisuifu or Blackwater Governor office in the Mohe land. Sumuo sought protection with Koguryo, and after Koguryo's demise in the hands of Tang, became independent and established the State of Po'hai. Po'hai continued for a dozen generations till it was destroyed by the Khitans.

Jurchens' defeat by the Mongols would be after their 119-20 years of stay in China, and by that time, they had become very much sinicized. The other mistake they made was in relocating their capital from today's Beijing to Bianliang or today's Kaifeng. That move basically cut off their tribal and logistical support from their homeland in Manchuria.

Founding Father of the Jurchens

History Of Jurchen Jin Dynasty recorded that the founding father of Jurchens had two more brothers. At age 60 plus, the second brother, by the name of Hanpu, left Koryo for Manchuria with his younger brother Baofuli. The elder brother, A'gunai, fond of Buddhism, told the two brothers that he could not leave Koryo because their descendants would for sure reunite here in Koryo.

Hanpu went to live among the Wayan people, a prominent Jurchen tribe in Manchuria.

Song Chinese's Game Of Triangular Warfare

For hundreds of years, the Song Dynasty, built on top of Northern Zhou (AD 951-960) of the Cai(1) family, would be engaged in the games of 'three kingdom' kind of warfares. Northern Song (AD 960-1127) would face off with the Western Xia (AD 1032-1227) and Khitan Liao in a triangle, and then played the card of allying with the Jurchens in destroying the Khitan Liao. With Northern Song defeated by the Jurchens thereafter, Southern Song (AD 1127-1279) would be engaged in another triangle game, with the other players being Western Xia and the Jurchen Jin. Southern Song would then play the card of allying with the Mongolians in destroying Jurchen Jin, and it even sent tens of thousands of carts of grain to the Mongol army in the besieging of the last Jurchen stronghold. Soon after than, the Southern Song generals broke the agreement with the Mongols and they shortly took over the so-called three old capitals of Kaifeng, Luoyang and Chang'an. But they could not hold on to any of the three because what they had occupied had been empty cities after years of warfare between the Jurchens and Mongols.

Mongols Attacks On Jurchens

The Jurchens had in early days defeated the Kitans in a seven-year war (AD 1115-1122) by means of an alliance with Northern Song (AD 960-1127), and founded the Jin Dynasty (AD 1115-1234). They subdued neighboring Koryo (Korea) in AD 1126 and invaded Song, while the son of defeated Kitan Liao ruler fled with the small remnant of his army to the Tarim Basin where he allied himself with the Uygurs (Uighurs) and established the Karakitai state (Western Liao Dynasty, AD 1124-1234).

Genghis Khan declared war in AD 1211 on the Jurchens. The Jurchens had fights with the early 'Mengwu' people (led by Kabul-khan) in 1139 and in 1147, and they nailed Ambaki and Kabul-khan's elder son to wooden donkeys and hence were feuds of Genghis Khan's Mongols. The Tartars had assisted the early Jurchens in defeating the Mongol (Meng-ku) rebellions, handed over Mongol leader Ambakai (dispueted to have adopted tribal name of Tayichi'ut) and his son to the Jurchens for execution in AD 1150s, and dealt the remaining Meng-ku tribes a decisive defeat near Lake Buir in AD 1160s.

In AD 1211, Genghis Khan held a khuriltai (assembly). (First assembly was in AD 1206.) When the new Jurchen Jin Emperor Wanyan Yongji sent an emissary to Genghis Khan, Genghis Khan refused to bow down to take the decree. He advanced into northern China to attack Jurchen Jin and defeated Jurchen General Hu Shaohu and his 300 thousand army. Many Khitans and Chinese joined the Mongolians to avenge on the Jurchens. This will include Genghis's later prime minister, Yeluchucai, and famous generals like Chinese brothers, Si Tianni and Si Tianzhe etc. At that time, Mongols, with aid from the Khitans and Chinese who served in Jurchen army, notably with the help of a Jurchen general called Ming'an, took over Juyongguan Pass of the Great Wall (near Beijing). Genghis Khan was wounded in Dadong and agreed to a peace with the Jurchens with the condition that the Jurchen princess be sent to him as a bride. He retreated back to Mongolia. The new Jurchen Emperor, Jin Xuanzong, however, made a strategic mistake by relocating his capital to Bianliang (today's Kaifeng), which essentially enraged Genghis Khan as well as cut himself from the Jurchen base in Manchuria. The successor Jin emperor would be defeated again later, but not until 1234.

In AD 1213, Genghis Khan resumed warfare against the Jurchens. With three armies into the heart of Jin territory, in AD 1214, siege of Zhongdu (Beijing) began. Meantime, he devastated northern China, sacking numerous cities in Hebei/Shandong provinces, reducing them into all ruins. By AD 1215, Beijing (known as Yanjing) fell, and history recorded the horrors of massacre and suicides. The Mongolian army, short of grain supply during the siege, would line their soldiers up, select soldiers via one out of every hundred or so, and kill them for food. As to the residents inside of Beijing, hunger led to cannibalism, too, and at the time when Beijing fell, innumerable number of women and girls jumped down from the city wall to commit suicide. Some western traveller recorded that the human oil from burning those dead bodies had been so thick that it did not dissappear for a long time. In AD 1216, Genghis went back to Mongolia.

Genghis Khan died in AD 1227 during his campaigns against the Tanguts. Since Western Xia had refused to provide troops in the war against the Khwarizm, and more over, signed another alliance treaty with Jurchen Jin, Genghis Khan readied a force of 180,000 troops for a new campaign against the Tanguts. Late in AD 1226, when the rivers were frozen, the Mongols struck southward. On the banks of the frozen Yellow River the Mongols defeated a Xixia army of more than 300,000. The Mongols killed the Tangut emperor in a mountain fortress. His son took refuge in the walled city of Ningxia. Leaving one-third of his army to take Ningxia, Chinggis sent Ogedei eastward, across the great bend of the Yellow River, to attack the Jurchen Jin. The Mongols, as a precautionery measure, marched southeast to eastern Sichuan Province, where the Western Xia, the Jin, and the Song empires met, to prevent Song reinforcements from reaching the Tanguts in Ningxia. Here he accepted the surrender of the new Western Xia emperor but rejected peace overtures from Jin. On his death in 1227, he outlined to his youngest son, Tului, the plans that later would be used by his successors to complete the destruction of the Jin empire.

When the Jurchens were driven out of Bianliang or Kaifeng in AD 1233, they retreated southward to a small town close to the Song border called Caizhou (today's Lunan, Henan Province). The Jurchens sent a messenger to Song Chinese requesting for help in fighting the Mongols. Song Emperor Lizong flatly denied it, and more over, Song struck a deal withe Mongols in attacking the Jurchens together. Song would then play the card of allying with the Mongolians in destroying Jurchen Jin, and it even sent tens of thousands of carts of grain to the Mongol army in the besieging of the last Jurchen stronghold. With the Mongols attacking the north gate and the Song Chinese attacking the south gate, the Jurchens were completely defeated and the last emperor, Jin Aizong, committed suicide in AD 1234. The remaining Jurchen genegals and royal family members jumped to the river to commit suicides as well. There is a saying that the Jurchens who survived the Mongols had later retreated towards Manchuria. However, the truth of fact is that Manchuria was already in Mongol hands; besides, the Jurchens in northern China were already very much sinicized to be differentiated from the local Chinese.

Later Manchus

The later Manchus could be just a kinsmen tribe of the original Jurchens, and at most descendants of the Jurchens who remained in the homeland throughout the Jurchen expansion in northern China during the period of 1115-1234 AD. Similar to the legends about the Jurchen founders, the ancestor of the Manchu founders, Bu-ku-li-yong-shun, had wandered into a village where he was taken in as a distinguished guest and given a woman for marriage. Bu-ku-li-yong-shun was said to have been born after his mother swallowed a red fruit dropped by a sparrow. Bu-ku-li grew up under the foot of Changbaishan Mountain. When he asked who his father was, his mother told him the story and gave him the last name of 'Ai-xin-jue-luo' which was translated into Chinese as the 'jin' or gold for Ai-xin and 'surname' for Jue-luo. Bu-ku-li-yong-shun, similar to Jurchen founders, would somehow pacify the generations of fights between this village where he took as home and two other neighboring villages. He was supported by all three villages as chieftan, called 'bei-le'. Hence the 'Ai-xin-jue-luo' tribe came into existence.

Bu-ku-li-yong-shun descendants would relocate to a place called He-tu-a-la (i.e., later Xingjing). Jue-chang-an, the grandfather of later Nurhaci (i.e., Nu-er-ha-chi, 1559-1626), would gradually grow in strength. A Ming Dynasty general (Li Chengliang) at Liaoxi, in order to suppress the Jurchen growth, would attack the grandson-in-law of Jue-chang-an. Jue-chang-an and his son died as a result of a conspiracy between the Huron Chieftan Ni-kan-wai-lan and Ming Dynasty General Li Chengliang. Nurhaci, around the age of 25 at that time, would attack Huron Chieftan Ni-kan-wai-lan to avenge the death of his father/grandfather. Ni-kan-wai-lan fled to Ming territories, and Nurhaci wrote a letter to Ming court asking for Ni-kan-wai-lan. Ming court, however, only condoled Nurhaci with 30 horses, two coffins, the post of 'dudu' (i.e., governorship) of Jianzhou-wei, and the title pf General 'Long-hu' (dragon and tiger). Nurhaci hence set up four banners of armies, trained his soldiers, and attacked the Ming border castle to have Ni-kan-wai-lan captured and executed.

By late Ming Dynasty, three Jurchen tribes were known, Jianzhou (jianzhou Prefecture), Haixi (east of the sea), & Yeren (Uncivilized people). Under Nurhaci or Nurhachu (1559-1626), they united various tribes and expanded their territory. Nurhaci first defeated the Ye-he Statelet at Huron Lake. The territories of Huron Lake area was named Haixi-wei by Ming Dynasty, and Ye-he tribe was the biggest of the four subtribes in the area. Ye-he tribe chieftan, considered a vassal of Ming, was jealous of Nurhaci expansion, and he called upon an army of 30,000, including some Mongols, for an attack on Nurhaci. Nurhaci thoroughly defeated Ye-he tribe. Ye-he tribe promised to send in their daughter for inter-marriage with Nurhaci, but Ye-he tribe then promised to marry the princess to the Mongols. (Ye-he family would later produce the Empress Dowger Cixi.)

By AD 1616, Nurhachu would proclaim the founding of 'Da Jin', namely, Grand Gold Dynasty, at a place called Xingjin. The Manchu claim of relation to the Jin dynasty of China was the justification for conquering China in the 17th cent. and establishing the Qing dynasty. In addition to the original four banners of yellow, red, blue and white, Nurhachu set up four extra embedded banners of yellow, red, blue and white. The so-called 'Eight Banner' system was used for organizing armies into eight columns. Later, the Manchus set up eight Mongolian and Chinese banners, respectively, on basis of ethnic composition. Nurhachu, after making an oath of 'seven hatreds for the Ming Dynasty', would lead an army of 20,000 against Ming border town of Hushun. Before arriving in Hushun, a Chinese intellectual, by the name of Fan Wencheng, came to Nurhaci's camp to serve as a counsellor. Nurhaci asked Fan whether Song Dynasty's prime minister Fan Zhongyan was his ancestor, and Fan replied 'yes'. Fan Wencheng somehow pursuaded Ming general at Hushun, Li Yongfang, into a surrender. Nurhaci then defeated Ming relief armies to Hushun and killed three generals. When the news arrived at Ming court, Emperor Shenzong sent someone called Yang Hao to counter Nurhaci. Yang Hao, who had lost a battle to the Japanese in Korea, would lose the Battle of Saerhu. Though Yang Hao mobilized an army of 200,000, including 20,000 Koreans and 20,000 Ye-he tribesmen, Nurchaci used smart tactics and defeated the Ming armies one by one within a matter of half a year. Yang Hao was arrested and demoted by Ming court, and Xiong Tingbi was conferred the post of 'jing lüe' for Manchuria. After rebelling against Ming Dynasty and defeating the Ming army at the Battle of Sa'erhu in AD 1619 (?), they moved their capital today's Shenyang City, called Shengjin at the time. Southern Manchuria, Liaoning Province, was historically Ming Chinese territories. Nuerhachu later died of the cannon of Ming General Yuan Chonghuan at the battle of Ningyuan (today's Xingcheng, Liaoning Province). Yuan had built this kind of long range canon with the help of the Jesuits, and Yuan named it 'Red-Hair Alien Cannon'. Nuerhachu's successor, Huangtaiji, would first attack the Koreans and Mongolians, and then played a dissension to have Ming Emperor Chongzhen kill Yuan. In AD 1636, Huangtaiji changed their name to Manchu from Jurchen and declared their dynasty name of 'Qing', namely, clearness. After the death of Huangtaiji, Emperor Shunzhi would be enthroned. Huangtaiji's brother, Duo'ergun (Dorgon), would be responsible for pushing the war against Ming. The Manchus boasted of an army of 220,000 for the Eight Banners. (After taking over China, they had raised an additional army of 660,000 for the Green Camp Battalions.)

The Manchus first used Khitan's Siniform script. The Uygur script indirectly influened the Manchus when they adopted the Mongolian script in 1599. (The Manchus finally adopted Chinese logographic characters.)

In northern China, Ming Dynasty was already devastated by peasant rebellions led by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong. Li followed his uncle-in-law in rebelling against Ming Dynasty in AD 1628. After a defeat in Shenxi, Li re-organized his rebels in Henan Province. While in Henan, Li acquired two intellectuals, by the name of Niu Jinxing and Li Yan, and re-shaped his bandit approach. By 1644, he led an army of one million eastward. Li Zicheng sacked Xi'an and captured King Qin Zhu Cunshu, attacked Taiyuan and killed King Jin Zhu Qiushu. After conquering Daizhou Prefecture, Li Zicheng went all the way to attack Ming capital of Peking in the east. He sacked Peking (Beijing) and caused the last Ming Emperor Sizong (Chongzhen) to hang himself inside of Forbidden City in Beijing. Meanwhile, in the west, Zhang slaughtered 3/4th of Sichuan's population. (Sichuan was later filled up by migrants from Guangdong and Hunan provinces.) A Ming general at Ningyuan, Wu Sangui, was on his way to Peking to rescue Ming emperor, but he stopped at Shanhaiguan Pass when he heard of the fall of the capital. Wu surrendered to Manchu when he heard that his mistress was grabed by the rebel. After Manchus were invited by Wu Sangui the gatekeeper for Shanhaiguan Pass, the Manchus used the slogan of 'Restoring Ming Dynasty' to call for cooperation among Ming Chinese remnant armies in the wars against the peasant rebells. Duo'ergun would relocate Emperor Shunzi to Peking. When they came into China in AD 1644, they brought in maybe just tens of thousands of Manchu soldiers. The major armies among the Manchu were still of Chinese nature, and they pursued Li Zicheng to Xi'an. After a defeat in Tongguan Pass, Li fled southward to Jiugongshan Mountain, Hubei Province where Li was killed by local Ming warlords. Manchu-Ming armies went on to Sichuan to kill rebel Zhang. Then, they continued on to attack Southern Ming Court and slaughtered the city of Yangzhou on the north bank of the Yantze. Ming General Shi Kefa died during this battle. Then, crossing Yantze River, the Manchus slaughtered two more cities, Jiading and another Zhejiang city. The notorious slaughering of Jiading City was conducted by Manchu generals of ethnic Chinese background, in fact. Then, Wu Sangui would be responsible for fighting the new Ming Emperor who received support from a general under peasant rebel Zhang Xianzhong. But the new Ming emperor fled to Burma and was later handed over to Wu by Burmese king. Wu and another two Chinese generals would control southwestern China and southern China as the so-called Three Vassals for dozens of years.

In southern China, General Zheng Chenggong rebelled against his father who had surrendered to the Manchus. He launched a war to recover Taiwan from the Dutch, from Dongshan Islands, Fujian Province. The Zheng family would rule Taiwan till AD 1683. Shi Lang, a general under Zheng's son, would defect to the Manchus and be responsible for taking over Amoy and Quemoy in AD 1680 and subsequent leading the Manchus landing in Taiwan.

Ethnic contentions between Manchu and Han Chinese were intense. During the 266 years of Manchu rule, numerous Chinese rebellions had ocurred. The Manchu imposed a strict rule of haircutting. The Manchus had a special hair style: They cut hair off the front skull of their head and made the remaining hair into a long pigtail. The pigtail story might be related to the early Tobas of the 4th-6th century. The Tobas were called "suo nu", namely, pigtail styled robbers. The Chinese had no choice, either hair or head to be cut. The Manchu also adopted predatory methods of land deprivation. They set up caste system in the attempt of avoiding the possibility of being assimilated by the Chinese. The Manchu first emperor had a famous story about marrying a Chinese woman called 'Dong Guifei'. After the death of this comcubine, Emperor Shunzhi went to Wutaishan Mountain as a monk. Dong Guifei could be related to some Manchu with inter-marriage with Chinese from Han Banner. Historians believed that Dong was a Manchu, but the populace belief was that she was a Han. Today, the Manchus had lost their ethnic identities. If anyone called himselve a Manchu, it would be for sake of child birth or college entrance quota. The Manchus may have lost their identies because they lacked a religion. The Hui Muslims could claim to be a Hui because they believed in Islam no matter how Chinese they look. The Manchus have nothing to cling to as a differentiation from the Chinese.

TO BE CONTINUED !!!!!

written by Ah Xiang

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Li Hongzhang's Poem After 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki:

Having never released horse saddles or left chariots, I painstakingly worked out;
Till the reckoning of disaster did I find out that it was not easy to simply die.
For 300 years, the foot-steps of my motherland had been staggering;
Along the road of 8000 li distance were scenes of hardship-stricken mourning populace.
In the sobre autumn winds, I, a minister in solitude, was in tears beside my treasured sword;
With the sun setting, I now stand by the campaigning flag on the generalissimo's altar;
Dusts of war are still floating over all seas, with no sign of settling down;
Gentlemen, please not look upon the developments of our country as a disinterested bystander.

Copyright 1998-2006:

This website expresses the personal opinions of the author. In addition to author's comments, extensive citations and quotes of ancient Chinese classics (available at http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/ftmsw3) were presented via transcribing and paraphrasing Classical Chinese language into the English language. Whenever possible, links and URLs are provided to give credit and reference to ideas borrowed elsewhere. This website may be used or reproduced in any form or by any means, with or without prior written permission, on the pre-condition that acknowledgement or reciprocal link is expressively provided. All rights reserved.
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This is an internet version of my writings on "Historical China" (2004 version assembled by third-millennium-library.com), "Republican China", and "Communist China". There is no set deadline as to the date of completion for "Communist China". The work on "Historical China" will be after "Republican China". The current emphasis is on "Republican China", now being re-outlined to be inclusive of 1911 to 1950 and divided into four volumes of pre-1919, 1919 to 1928, 1929 to 1941, and 1942 to 1950. This webmaster plans to make the contents of "Republican China 1929-1941, A Complete Untold History" into a publication soon. The original plan for completion in year 2007 was delayed as a result of broadening of the timeline to be inclusive of 1929-1941. For up-to-date updates, check the RepublicanChina-pdf.htm page. The objectives of my writings would be i) to re-ignite the patriotic passion of ethnic Chinese overseas; ii) to rectify the modern Chinese history to its original truth; and iii) to expound the Chinese traditions, humanity, culture and legacy to the world community. Significance of the historical work on this website could probably be made into a parallel to the cognizance of Chinese revolutionary forerunners in 1890s: After 250 years of Manchu forgeries and repression, revolutionaries re-discovered the Manchu slaughters and literary inquisitions against Chinese via books like "Three Rounds Of Slaughter At Jiading In 1645", "Ten Day Massacre At Yangzhou" and Jiang Lianqi's "Dong Hua Lu" [i.e., "Lineage Extermination Against Luu Liuliang Family"] in late 19th century. It is this Webmaster's hope that some future generations of Chinese patriots, including to-be-awoken sons and grandsons of arch-thieve Chinese Communist rulers [who had sought material pursuits in the West], would return to China for the goodness of the country. Send any suggestion or comment to webmaster@republicanchina.org webmaster@uglychinese.org for feedback.

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