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Escape from Hengyang by Qiong Yao |
Second European Campaign (AD 1236-1242) Back in AD 1229, Batu Khan ("Bathy rex Tartarorum") , son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan, defeated most of the Bulghar posts. In the winter of AD 1236, Ogedei sent an army of 150,000 against Qin-cha and Russia, with Batu, Subetei, Moengke etc in charge. (Luo Xianglin stated that the Mongols raised an army of 500,000) After finishing off Volga Bulgars north of the Caspian, they went northward to attack the Rus tribes. In December 1237, Subetei and Batu led an army of 600,000 across the frozen Volga River. In AD 1237, the Mongols under the command of Moengke attacked Riazan city. The chieftan Youli (Yuri?) and his son were recorded to have defended the city. Subetei captured Youli's son and intended to take over the wife of Youli's son for the beauty. When the woman jumped off the city wall to commit suicide, Subetei ordered the city to be slaughtered. Next, the Mongols attacked the city of Keluomuna and killed their leader by the name of Ruoman (Roman). The Rus relief army from Vladimir was defeated, too. Mongols went to siege the city of Moscow and captured the grandson of Youli the Second. The capital was the Vladimir city (Moscow). Youli and his sons and nephews all died in fighting with the Mongols. By the summer of AD 1238, all northern Russian principalities, including Rostov, and Vladimir (Moscow), were taken over. Mongols went as north as the forests for sake of clearing the rear of Rus. Only Novgorod escaped Mongols, but Novgorod would have to pay tribute to the Mongols. Subetei then turned south to the steppe region around the Don. One year later, Mongols turned southwest. After a siege of dozens of days, the Mongols took over a city called Tu-li-si-ge by means of sending disguised soldiers into the city. (I just don't know how they manage to change the facials or to hire local mercenaries of same facials for sneaking into the city.) Three days later, the spies opened the city gate and Mongols sacked the city and slaughtered all. Mongols then went southward to attack Qin-cha (Kipchak). The old chieftan (Huotuosihan or Khan Huotuoshi), hearing the arrival of the Mongols, fled to Majia (i.e., Hungary). Some accounts put the number of Kipchak or Cuman refugees somewhere near 200,000. King Béla IV of Hungary offered Cumans protection in return for their conversion to Christianity and providing 40,000 fighters in defence against the Mongols. After clearing the northwest of the Caucasus, the Mongols went to attack Southern Russia, i.e., Kiev. In November 1240, the Mongol army crossed the Dnieper River. At this time, Kiev chieftan had gone north to help the dead Youli the Second. Hence, the Kiev chieftan became the head of the Rus capital Vladimir, while the Chernigov chieftan (Mihaile) had relocated to Kiev as the new head. (Kiev was the Rus capital for three hundred years before they moved to Vladimir. Also note that the name Rus came from Norse which was to say that the Rus conquerors had heritage from Scandinavian pirates who crossed the Sea three hundreds before that time.) On December 6th of AD 1240, the Mongols captured Kiev. Mongols attacked Chernigov city before Kiev. Chernigov chieftan (Mihaile or Mikhail ?) had defeated several waves of Mongol attacks via pouring boiling water over the city wall. Then, Tadu decided to attack Kiev and personally led the siege. Chernigov chieftan (Mihaile) fled to Poland. One general by the name of Dimitri surrendered to the Mongols and then encouraged the Mongols to go west. Note the Mongols had conquered Russia during the infamous winter seasons which turned out to be fatal enemy for both Napoleon and Hitler. In December 1240, Batu, at Przemysl, sent an ultimatum to King Béla IV of Hungary demanding the surrender of the Cumans. Bela immediately rallied his Hungarians as well as other European principalities for relief. In the spring of 1241, Tadu divided his Mongol army into 2 columns: Baidar & Kaidu to attack Poland with a force of 20000, and Subetei & Tadu to attack Majia (Hungary) with a force of 50000. Luo Xianglin stated that Mongols, after Kiev, split into four routes for attacking Poland, Silesia, Galcia, and Hunagary [Ma-jia], respectively. The forerunner column to attack Poland would be led by Subetei's son, Kaidu. http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl2mongolinvasion.htm stated that "in February 1241, the Mongol army left its base in southern Russia and crossed the frozen rivers into central Europe. The force consisted of about 70,000 men, two-thirds of whom were light cavalry and the rest heavy cavalry, though all were equipped with bows. They were nominally commanded by Batu, but once again he was guided by Subotai." Baidar and Kaidu [i.e., the grandson of Ogadei] attacked Poland in early March 1241 as a diversionary tactics. Batu and Subotai passed through the Carpathians into Hungary on March 12, while dispatching a small force commanded by Kadan [i.e., son of Ogadei] to the southern flank for entry into Transylvania. Poland boasted of four tribes at that time under Piastow family. To the north, Kaidu (Khaidu) swept through Lithuania and Poland. Lithuania was left largely intact and later the Lithuanians would become a strong power between the Baltic and the Black Sea. Two Polish chieftans were either defeated or just fled in face of Mongol attacks. http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl2mongolinvasion.htm stated that "sweeping in a northward arc past the edge of the Carpathians and into Poland, Kaidu and Baidar sacked Sandomir, defeated an army of Poles and other Slavic forces under Boleslav at Kraków on March 3, and defeated another Polish army at Chmielnik on March 18. Turning their attention back to Kraków, the Mongols seized and burned the city on March 24, then assaulted the Silesian capital of Breslau a few days later. Breslau held out..." On March 24, at Cracow, Boleslav V (the Brave) of Poland, i.e., a cousin of Henry II, was killed. Remnants fled west to Liegnitz. Kaidu detached a tumen to raid along the Baltic coast. Kaidu raided westward into Silesia. The third Polish chieftan, by the name of Heinrich (i.e., Grand Prince Henry II of Silesia or Henry the Pious) assembled an army of 30,000, comprising of 2 columns of Germans, 2 columns of Poles, and one column of Heinrich's own people. Exact terminologies would be "Polish knights, Teutonic Knights, and French Knights Templar", plus German gold miners from Goldberg. Luo Xianglin stated that 1st & 2nd route of Mongol armies for Polish Campaign then converged for an attack at Liegnitz. Kaidu and Baidar intended to attack Henry II before King Wenceslas I of Bohemia [i.e., Henry II's brother-in-law] came to the relief with 50000 soliders. Henry II mis-calculated the arrival time of the Bohemian army and marched toward Jawor. Mongol army marched to Wahlstadt ["chosen place"] for Henry II to arrive. On April 9, 1241, on the Walstattt Plains, near the city of Liegnitz (Legnica, Poland), the Polish-German joint armies, with so-called Teutonic knights included, fought against the Mongols. http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl2mongolinvasion.htm stated that "upon seeing the Tartars, Henry drew up his forces in four squadrons and placed one after the other on the Wahlstadt. The first group was made up of knights from various nations, supplemented by the miners from Goldberg under the command of Boleslav, son of the margrave of Moravia. Sulislav, the brother of the late palatine of Kraków, led the second group--Krakovians and knights from Welkopole. The third group consisted of knights from Opole, led by the Opolian Duke Meshko, and Teutonic Knights from Prussia under the Heermeister Poppo von Ostern. Duke Henry led the fourth group, which was made up of men at arms from Silesia and Breslau, knights from Welkopole and Silesia, and French Knights Templar." Using the trick of "false flight and ambush", the Mongols decimated the European joint armies: light cavalry on Mongol ponies against hauberk-wrapped knights with lance and the broadsword. Henry II was killed and his head was carried around on a spear at the head of the Mongol army until it rotted away. http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl2mongolinvasion.htm stated that "in accordance with a Mongol custom used to count the dead, an ear was cut from each dead European. The Tartars filled nine sacks with ears. Contemporary records show that 25,000 of Henry's men were killed." Wenceslas and the Bohemians retreated upon hearing of Henry II's death. Then, the Mongols took over Warsaw. Catapults, made by Persian engineers, were deployed for injecting poisons and rocks into the city. (Catapults would be used again at the city of Xiangyang during the four and half year siege later, AD 1267-1272.) The whereabout of Chernigov chieftan (Mihaile or Mikhail) was unknown. Then, the Mongols marched southeast. They met stiff resistance from the Bohemians at a place called Ao-le-mu and had to evacuate from Czeckslovakia. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+mn0024) mentioned that Kadan (another son of Subetei), with 30,000, "advanced through Transylvania, into the Danube Valley, and into Hungary. They entered Moldavia, Bukovina and Transylvania through Tihuta/Birkau/Borgo Pass. In mid April, Kadan and Kaidu joined the main Mongol army under Batu in central Hungary." 
In early April of 1241, Batu crossed the Carpathian Mountains into Hungary. Batu sent another note to Majia (Hungary) requesting for handover of Kipchak chieftan (Huotuosihan). Batu had earlier sent Julianus (a Dominican friar) and Cuman prisoners to King Bela IV, but the message was ignored. Polish messenger's letter from Batu to Bela was also ignored.
Hungary, having received about 40,000 Kipchak [Cuman] people, ordered that they convert to Catholics. A Catholic priesthood leader, against the order of Hungarian king, led a Christian army for a fight with the Mongols outside of the city, but he got defeated by the Mongols in a swamp. The Hungarians and Archduke Frederick of Austria blamed the Mongol attack on the Kipchak chieftan and killed Huotuosihan [Khotyan] for sake of pacifying the Mongols. The Kipchaks or Cumans left Hungary for Bulgaria, plundering all the way.
(http://historymedren.about.com/library/prm/bl2mongolinvasion.htm adopted an European account stating that in January 1241, Archduke Frederick of Austria, having arrived in Buda, was "ferried across the Danube River to the small merchant town of Pest when a riot broke out--some say at his instigation--in which the Cumans' khan, Khotyan, was killed and his head thrown into the street... Archduke Frederick returned to Austria to observe the coming war from the sidelines.)
Cai Dongfan stated that the Mongols refused to leave even though Cuman khan was dead. Hungarian King (Beila, i.e., King Bela IV of Hungary) led a surpise attack at Batu and chased Batu army outside of the city. At this time, Subetei came to the aid of Batu. Mongols lured King Bela into a battle at the city of Mohi, on the banks of the Sajo River, on April 11. This is two days after the battle of Liegnitz. In April 1241, Hungarian king fled the city of Budapest and Mongols took over the city . (Some Mongol expert at http://www.coldsiberia.org detailed that Hungarian armies, "about 80,000 died in one battle and another 100,000 in consequent battles for Pest at the Sajo river, where Batu feigned a crossing during the evening of April 10, while Subedei crossed the river elsewhere covered by the dark of night." ) Meanwhile, Kadan took over Hermannstadt. Baidar and Kaidu fought across Moravia to meet with Subetei (Subotai) and Batu. But, at the city of Grobnok, the Croatians stopped the Mongols. The Mongols then took over the city of Lahore. The Mongols spent the rest of the year consolidating their control of Hungary east of the Danube River. Late in 1241, the Mongols crossed the frozen Danube. Scouting columns raided into northern Italy, toward Venice and Treviso, and up the Danube toward Vienna. Mongols chased Bela into Aosi (Austria) and Niemisi (Germany), pillaging and killing all the way to the Adriatic in Dalmatia. Mongol reconnaisance was seen near the city of Vienna. (Mongol expert at http://www.coldsiberia.org mentioned that "during the whole campaign, the European countries were incapable of resolving their differences to fight a common enemy. Austria seized parts of Hungary and the pope was rumored to be trying to induce the Mongols to attack his rivals and enemies"). On Dec 11, 1241, Ogedei Khan died in Mongolia. The regency was taken over by his widow Toregene (Empress Mazhen-shi, reign 1241-1246). In Feb 1242, news of Ogedei's death came to Batu camp. Batu led his armies back to the east. The Mongols moved through Dalmatia and Serbia, then eastward and they destroyed the kingdoms of Serbia and Bulgaria before crossing the lower Danube. The Mongols evacuated Hungary and moved into the south Russian steppe. Batu established his capital at Sarai, near the Caspian and Volga, and his statelet would be known as Khanate of Kipchak or the Golden Horde which would rule Russia for 250 years, till AD 1480. Guyuk was elected Grand Khan in AD 1246. Toregene, Guyuk Ogedei built several palaces in different places and indulged himself in his 6 empresses and over 100 concubines. (Ogedei Khan was responsible for establishing postal relay system, and Luo Xianglin claimed that Southern Song Chinese had commerce with Mongols from Lianshuijun Garrison in Yangtze-Huai river areas to Karakorum via coastal Shandong Province.) Against the advice of Yelu Chucai (Yeh-lu Chu'tsai), Ogedei went hunting and died in some ranch. When Ogedei died, Guyuk was still campaigning in the west. Hence, the sixth empress, Toregene (Mazhen-shi), decided to take over regency with the support of a Muslim minister called Aodulaheman. Aodulaheman was appointed the post as a prime minister, and he colluded with a Mulism woman called Fatima in controlling the Mongol court. Yelu Chucai hence resigned his post for retirement. When Genghis Khan's only remaining brother led forces towards the capital, Toregene would recall Yelu Chucai for mediation. Yelu Chucai died in AD 1243. At this time, Guyuk returned from the west. Aodulaheman and Fatima, for sake of continuing their control of the court, proposed to Toregene that Batu should come back for an assembly before Guyuk could be enthroned. After four years (1242-1246), Batu still refused to come east though Mongol soldiers had returned home. In AD 1246, Subedei died at the age of 70. When Toregene got ill, Guyuk was enthroned as the Khan. Franciscan friar, John of Plano Carpini, as a papal envoy, witnessed the event. After the death of his mother, Guyuk would kill Aodulaheman and threw Fatima and her female entourage into the river. While touring the west in AD 1248, Guyuk got ill and passed away. Guyuk's widow, Oghulgamish, holding their son, took over the regency without disclosing the death of Guyuk. Oghulgamish did consult with Touli's dowager concubine. Guyuk was titled Emperor Dingzong posthumously. Touli's dowager concubine had earlier warned Tadu of Guyuk's western tour. Tadu was on his way to the east to see Guyuk when he received the news that Oghulgamish had taken over regency. In the west, Batu held an assembly by himself, attended by descendants of Jochi and Touli. Descendants of Chagadai and Ogedei refused to attend. At the assembly, Khubilai and Muoge, sons of Touli, refused to acknowledge Guyuk's son as the heir. Subetei's son proposed that Batu be the khan. Batu recommended Mengke as the candidate. Oghulgamish's representative then went east to notify Oghulgamish of the assembly's decision. Oghulgamish was unhappy and said the assembly should be held in the east, not west. Batu then ordered that a brother accompany Mengke to the east. Another assembly (kuriltai) was held, but descendants of Chagadai, Ogedei and Guyuk refused to attend. In AD 1251, Batu's people hence forcefully declared Mengke as the new Khan. Touli was titled Emperor Ruizong posthumously. Mengke would frustrate an attempt by the assasins sent by Guyuk's son, and further, Mengke would either kill or exile the descendants and dowager empresses of both Ogedei (Taizong) and Guyuk (Dingzong), making them feuds of Ogedei family. Two brothers, Khubilai and Hulegu, would play active roles now. Khubilai was responsible for managing the region south of the Gobi Desert. Khubilai would use two Chinese intellectuals, Yao Shu and Xu Heng, and a Huihe'r (Uygur?) man called Lian Xixian. Khubilai would recommend another Chinese, Liu Bingzhong, to Mengke for the construction of Kaiping city later. Mengke deprived the Ogedei descendants of some of their former domains, making him and Khubilai inherit the lands of East Asia. A limit was put on the domains of the successors of Chagadai, which was to end along the Oxus River and the Hindu Kush. Hulegu, later Ilkhans ("subservient khans") of Iran, would rule beyond the Chagadai domain. Meanwhile, Batu had conducted limited raids into Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Serbia and Bulgaria. In 1252 and 1253, Khubilai would order Subetei's son to attack Dali (i.e., Nanzhao) in today's southern Chinese province of Yunnan, with three columns. Dali King, Duan Zixing, surrendered. Then, Mongol army invaded the Shanshan statelet in Chinese Turkistan and entered Tibetan Plateau thereafter. A Tibetan lama led the Mongols into the capital, and Tibetan chieftan surrendered. Khubilai entered Tibet and met the lama. When Mengke recalled Khubilai, Khubilai would take the 15 year old son (Phagsba) of the lama back to northern China and made him the Imperial Tutor when Khubilai got enthroned later. Subetei's son was ordered to march to the southwest and he conquered various southwestern statelets and tribes such as Baiman, Wuman, Guiman, Luoluosi, A'bo and A'lu etc. Tonkin or Annam (northern Vietnam) was invaded. In AD 1255, Batu died. In 1257, Vietnamese king, by the name of Chen, fled to island and Hanoi was sacked. Vietnamese king surrendered and Mongols left after a stay of nine days. Mengke, Hulegu & Mongol Third Wave To The West Hulegu [Fu-la] was ordered to go to the west to quell Muslim rebellion in early 1250s AD. Hulegu marched along the northern side of Tianshan Mountains, passing Alimali (present-day Korgas), and reached the bank of River Amu-darya in AD 1256. Then, he invaded a country called Munaixi (Hashasheen or Assassin or Arsacia?) to the south of the Caspian with three columns. The chieftan of Munaixi tried to negotiate for peace. Hulegu said the Muslims must destroy all their city and castles before they could talk for peace. Under the siege, Munaixi chieftan surrendered to the Mongols and destroyed their city and surrounding fifty castles. Guo Kan, a Chinese general who served the Mongols since the times of his grandfather, was responsible for fighting the "assassin" Muslim sect. But Hulegu still killed the chieftan and then ordered the city slaughtered. The remnant Arabs fled to Baghdad. In AD 1258, Hulegu reprimanded the Abbasid Caliphate, Mu-si-ta-xin, for offering asylum to the Munaixi people. Hulegu defeated the Caliphate by flooding the Arabic camp. Then, they went on to lay a siege of the city of Baghdad and bombarded the city from all directions. Hulegu refused to see Mustaxin's elder son for surrender. Mustaxin surrendered in Feb of AD 1258. Alternative saying is that Guo Kan captured the caliphate when he fled on a boat on Tigris River. Hulegu ordered the city be slaughtered, except for Catholics and foreigners. For seven days, about 800,000 people were slaughtered. Mustaxin's harem of 700 women were either killed or taken over by the Mongols. Hulegu ordered Mustaxin and his elder son be killed by wrapping them in blankets for the horses to trample on. Only Mustaxin's junior son was spared and he later married a Mongol woman and bore two sons for continuing their lineage. The Abbasid caliphate hence ended. Hulegu then ordered General Guo Kan [?-AD 1277], a Chinese from Shenxi Prov, to invade Syria, Saudi Arabia, Cyrus and India, while he led an army against Arabia in AD 1259. Mesopotamia and Syria were conquered, and Damascus was taken in April, 1260. Chinese chronicles from Yuan Dynasty stated that Guo Kan campaigned against Fu-lang statelet which was thought to be the European crusaders, conquered 120 cities and castles, and subdued numerous chieftans. Muslim refugess flocked to Egypt. Hulegu & Guo Kan returned to Mongolia upon Mengke's death. (Guo Kan was to participate in the campaigns against Southern Song Dynasty, to enjoy the title as a "wan hu" [10000 households], and to assume the post of magistrate for Haining of Zhejiang Prov in AD 1276.) Mongols continued on towards Egypt. In September, 1260, Mamluk army, i.e., Turkic mercenaries hired by Egypt, led by Baibars, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in Palestine. (Egptians would later drive out the Crusaders from Antioch in AD 1291.) Baibars was a former Mongol warrior who knew how to use Mongol tactics. Syria fell under Mamluk control. In AD 1261, Mamluk Baybars invited a descendant of the Abbasid caliphate to come to Cairo and reign as a puppet caliph. The new Abbasid caliphate was the puppets of the Mamluks during the time period of AD 1260 - 1277 when Baybars was in charge. In AD 1265, Baybars conquered Caesarea, and in 1268, took over Jaffa and Antioch. In AD 1270, the Eighth Crusade began. Baibars made an alliance with Berke Khan, Batu's brother and successor. Berke had converted to Islam. When Hulegu sent an army to Syria to punish Baibars, Berke came to the aid of Baibars. Hulegu, in order to counter Baibars and Berke, had to seek alliance with the kings of France/England and the Pope. Berke withdrew when Khubilai sent 30,000 troops to aid the Ilkhans. In Ilkhante, provinces were governed by Turkish viziers who finally replaced Ilkhan khanate with the death of Abu Said in 1335. Mengke Khan Attack on Southern Song Dynasty Khubilai was recalled to Karakorum (Helin) by Mengke Khan due to some dissension sowed by Mongol ministers. After expressing loyalty and kinsmenship, the two brothers came to good terms. Thinking that an ex-Mongol emissary, dispatched by Mazhen-shi, had died in Southern Song custody, Mengke decided to raise a huge army against Chinese in the south. Mongols attacked Sichuan-Shenxi areas again. After crossing Jialingjiang River, Mongols sacked Jianmen and Chengdu. A Chinese general at Hezhou, by the name of Wang Jian, successfully defeated several waves of Mongol attacks. After half a year of siege, the Mongols retreated after their general (Wang Dechen) died of the stone attack by Song Chinese. In August 1259, Mengke Khan hence got ill and died on Mount Diaoyushan of Hezhou Prefecture after a reign of nine years. Mengke Khan was entitled Emperor Xianzong posthumously. Mongols hence called off the campaign. Meanwhile, Khubilai just crossed the Huai River and arrived at Huangpo [Huangpi], Hubei Province. Hearing of Mengke Khan's death, he would write to Subetei's son in the hope of attacking Song from two directions. Two Chinese brothers under Khubilai, Dong Wenbing and Dong Wenyong, crossed the Yangtze River to lay siege on E'cheng of Hubei Province. Song Chinese at Han'yang, under Prime Minister Jia Sidao, secretly negotiated for peace with the Mongols by promising 200,000 units of silver and silk, respectively. Khubilai then returned north. Subetei's son was coming to the east and attacked Hunan Province. Hearing of the peace deal, Subetei's son went north, too. Jia Sidao killed a few hundred Mongol hind army when Subetei's son passed through and then claimed to Song Emperor Lizong that he had defeated the Mongols. Jia Sidao was conferred the title of Duke Weiguo-gong. Khubilai Khan and Yuan Dynasty (AD 1261-1368) Before returning to Helin, Arik-Buka (Ariq-boeke), a junior brother of Khubilai, held an assembly in Helin and declared himself 'khan'. Khubilai stopped at Jinlianchuan (Kaiping, i.e., Duolun, Cha'haer, Inner Mongolia) and declared himself Khan without an assembly. Yao Shu and Lian Xixian were ordered to make an announcement of Khubilai enthronement in the Chinese language. A Chinese era was declared, and the year would be First Year of Zhongtong Era, AD 1259. Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng revised on Genghis Khan's governmental structure of 'Duanshi-guan' (criminal prosecutor), 'Wan-hu' (10,000 head military chief), and Jurchen-style titles of 'yuan-shuai' (marshal) and 'xuan-hu' (pacifier) for provinces. New structure will be i) 'zhongshu sheng' (state affairs), ii) 'shumi yuan' (military affairs), and iii) 'yushi tai' (promotion and demotion of officials). Lower levels will include shi, jian, yuan, si, wei, and fu. Provincial affairs would be handled by 'xing-sheng', 'xing-tai', 'xuan-hu', 'lian-fang' and 'muming zhangguan', and levels included 'Lu' (comprising of several provinces), 'Fu' (province or prefecture), 'Zhou' (smaller prefectures) and 'Xian' (county). But discrimination against Chinese was rampant. Mongols would assume the primary posts while the Han Chinese the deputy posts. Tax administration could only be laid in the hands of Muslims - allies of the Mongols. A caste society was established, and four levels were differentiated: 1) Mongols, 2) Se Mu Ren or Semuren (color-eyed people), 3) Han-Ren (i.e., northern Chinese, Khitans etc), and 4) Nan-zi (southern Chinese-barbarians). Arik-Buka (Ariq-boeke), a junior brother of Khubilai, held an assembly in Helin and declared himself 'khan'. Lian Xixian, on his own initiative, frustrated the attempts of Arik-Buka emissaries (Liu Taiping and Huo Luhuai) at Peking and defeated a general who answered Arik-Buka's order. Khubilai then attacked Arik-Buka and drove him off in AD 1261. The two brothers fought against each other for five years. After being in reign for five years, Khubilai Khan declared the new era of Zhiyuan in AD 1263. (In AD 1271, the Mongols adopted the dynastic name Yuan.) At the advice of Liu Bingzhong, Khubilai Khan, in AD 1264 [5th year of Song Emperor Lizong's Jingding Era], moved his capital to Peking, i.e., winter capital Dadu ("great capital") or Khanbalik in Marco Polo's Cambaluc. This is in addition to summer palace at Shangdu (the Xanadu of Coleridge). Khubilai Khan sent an embassy, comprising of scholar officials Hao Jing, He Yuan and Liu Renjie, to Southern Song. Southern Song Prime Minister, in order to hide his previous treachery acts from Emperor Lizong (Zhao Yun, reign AD 1224-1264), would imprison the Mongol emissaries. Khubilai Khan sent another emissary to Song border general Li Tingzhi. Li's report to Emperor Lizong was covered up by Jia Sidao. Khubilai Khan issued the war decree in the second year of Zhongtong Era (Ad 1260). Mongol governor-general in charge of Huai River and Yangtze areas, Li Zhan (Li Tan?), defected to Song in the spring of third year of Zhongtong Era. Hearing of that, Khubilai Khan ordered that Shi Tianze to attack the defector general at Jinan, Shandong. After a few months siege, Mongols took over Jinan and killed Li Zhan via a cruel penalty of splitting the body. Siege Of Xiangyang (AD 1267-1272) Around AD 1264, during the fifth year of Zhongtong Era, Khubilai Khan changed his era to Zhiyuan Era. Arik-Buka was spared and came to surrender. At this time, a Song officer at Tongchuan, called Liu Zheng, being resented by Jia Sidao, would surrender his 15 prefectures to the Mongols and he was conferred the posts of 'xing(2)sheng(3)' and 'an-hu-shi' of Sichuan areas. Liu Zheng proposed to have Song Chinese grain supply cut off at Xiangyang. Song Chinese General in Sichuan, Lü Wende, did not pay attention to Liu Zheng's building up the castles and cutting off Xiangyang from Sichuan. Lü Wende said that Xiangyang had ten years of grain supply. General Lü Wenhuan at Xiangyang wrote to Lu Wende, but he was ignored. Then, Liu Zheng and A-zu led Mongols to Xiangyang and encircled it for four-five years. The new Song Emperor Duzong (Zhao Qi, reign AD 1264-1274) again conferred Jia Sidao important posts and added an extra title called 'Tai Shi', i.e., imperial tutor. Jia Sidao was extolled as comparable to Archduke Zhou of Western Zhou Dynasty. Jia Sidao pretended to resign several times, but Emperor Duzong would not let him go. Jia Sizong continued to shield the news of Xiangyang siege from the emperor. When a concubine told Duzong that Xiangyang had been under siege for 3 years, Jia Sidao would order that the woman be killed. The notoriety of Jia Sidao was best illustrated by another story: When one concubine of Jia Sidao saw a young man on the bank of Xihu Lake (West Lake) and exclaimed about the beauty of the young man, Jia Sidao would order that the young man be killed in front of the concubine. In Sichuan, after Lü Wende died, his brother-in-law, Fan Wenhu, took over the post; but Fan, like his predecessor, refused to send relief army to Xiangyang. At one time, Jia Sidao ordered Li Tingzhi and Fan Wenhu to aid Xiangyang. Fan Wenhu and his 100,000 were defeated. Two generals under Li Tingzhi, Zhang Shun and Zhang Gui, sailed along the Han-shui River, Zhang Gui broke through Mongol siege lines, and Zhang Gui died on the Han-shui River. Zhang Shun barely entered Xiangyang alive. After finding out Xiangyang was in great urgency, Zhang Shun, hiring two brave men, departed Xiangyang for sake of appealing for aid with Fan Wenhu. But soon after Zhang Shun broke through Mongol siege lines, he encountered Mongol ships and was caught by Mongol, and Zhang died in Mongol hands. Then, the sister city of Fancheng was taken over by the Mongols, and two generals, Fan Tianshun and Niu Fu, died. Mongols deployed catapults (made by Persian engineers) against the outer wall of Xiangyang and destroyed it. Everytime Lü Wenhuan climbed up the citywall, he would have tears while facing the south. A Mongol general called on Lü Wenhuan to surrender, saying that Lü Wenhuan had done his job by guarding Xiangyang for five years. After they broke the arrows to swear forgivenness and sincerity, Lü Wenhuan surrendered and was conferred the post of 'Da-dudu' or governor-general of Xiangyang and Han-shui River areas. Demise Of Song Dynasty At this time, Emperor Duzong died, and his four year old son, Emperor Gongdi (Zhao Xian, reign 1274-1275), was made emperor in AD 1275. Mongols sent Shi Tianze and Boyan (Bayan, grandson of Subetei) on a full campaign against Song. Shi Tianze died on route. Bayan ordered that A-zu head the first column and depart for the Yangtze from Xiangyang, with Lu Wenhuan as fore-runner general; 2nd column was to be headed by Mang-wu departing from Yangzhou, with Liu Zheng as forerunner general. Bayan took over numerous cities on the way, slaughtered one town, and killed and captured numerous Song generals. Song Dowager Empress Xie-shi had no choice but to rely on Jia Sidao for fighting the Mongols. More Song generals surrendered, including Fan Wenhu in Sichuan, Chen Yi in Huangzhou (Huanggang area, Hubei). Hearing Liu Zheng had passed away, Jia Sidao had a short ecstasy and led an army of about 130,000 against the Mongols, but he was defeated on the Yangtze River. Jiangsu areas, around the Yangtze, including Zhenjiang and Jiangyin, were deserted in face of Mongol attacks. Jia Sidao sent an emissary to Bayan for peace, but met with declination. Jia Sidao requested with dowager empress for relocation of Song capital, but Empress Xie-shi refused to move. Several ministers at Song court requested that Jia Sidao be deprived of his posts, and Song released former Mongol emissaries like Hao Jing as a good-will gesture. At this moment, Zhang Shijie of E'zhou (Hubei Province), Wen Tianxiang of Jiangxi and Li Fei of Hunan came to the east to help the Song court. Jiankang (i.e., Nanking) was deserted by a Song general. Changzhou and Wuxi were next taken by the Mongols. Khubilai Khan then sent Lian Xixian and Yan Zhongfan to Song for talking about ceasefire. Lian Xixian requested with Bayan for bodyguards, but Bayan advised that the more bodyguards Lian was to take with him, the more likely Song Chinese might harm him. Lian obtained 500 soldiers, but once Lian arrived at Dusong-guan Pass, Song General Zhang Ru killed Yan Zhongfan and captured Lian Xixian. (History of Yuan Dynasty stated that Lian was killed, too.) Bayan reprimanded Song's acts, and sent another emissary, Zhang Xu, to Song court together with Song emissary. Again, Zhang Xu was killed by a Song border general. Then, the Mongols stopped peace talks and attacked Yangzhou on the north bank of the Yangtze (Changjiang River). Mongols then attacked Yangzhou and defeated two generals under Li Tingzhi. Jiading surrendered next. Zhang Shijie's navy was defeated on the Yangtze by Mongol fire attack. Wen Tianxiang arrived in Lin'an (Hangzhou) the capital, but Empress Dowager did not take his advice. Jia Sidao was expelled from the capital and he was killed by the escort official on route. Taizhou of Jiangsu was lost to the Mongols, and Changzhou was slaughtered. In Hunan, Li Fei died, and both Hunan and Jiangxi Provinces were lost. After taking over Dusong-guan Pass, the Mongols were closing in onto Song capital. A Song minister called Liu Yue was sent to Mongol camp for peace, but Bayan declined it, saying Song Emperor obtained the throne from a kid and would lose it in the hands of a kid. Lu Xufu was sent to Mongols for expressing a wish to be Mongol nephew, but Mongols declined it. Song's new prime minister, Chen Yizhong, sent Liu Yue to Mongols in the attempt of expressing ackowledgement as a Mongol vassal, but Liu Yue was killed by a Song Chinese civilian on route, at Gaoyou of Jiangsu Province. Mongols then sacked Jiaxing and An'jie of Zhejiang Province. Wen Tianxiang and Zhang Shijie advised that Song court relocated to the islands in the seas, but Prime Minister Chen Yizhong decided to send imperial seal to Mongols for a surrender. Bayan requested that Chen personally came to Mongols, and Chen fled to Wenzhou, a southern Zhejiang coastal city. Zhang Shijie led his people into the sea. Wen Tianxiang was made the rightside prime minister and was ordered to go to Mongols for peace. Wen was arrested by Bayan after he accused Bayan of invasion. In AD 1276, Bayan took over Lin'an and forced downager empress issue the surrender order. Song royal family, including downager empress and Emperor Gongdi, was sent to Peking. Late Emperor Duzong had two more sons, 11 and 6 year old, respectively. They fled to Wenzhou before Lin'an was taken by Mongols. Chen Yizhong sailed them to Fuzhou of Fujian Province where a new Song court was set up. Eleven year old Zhao Shi was made Emperor Ruizong (reign AD 1275-1278). Zhang Shijie, Su Liuyi, and Lu Xiufu consecutively arrived in Fuzhou. Chen Yizhong was retained as leftside prime minister, while Wen Tianxiang, after fleeing from the Mongols, also arrived in Fuzhou and acted as rightside prime minister. Song court would last another three years before the final demise. Mongols continued to push south. Canton (Guangzhou) of Guangdong Province was taken, and Song General Huang Jun died. Yangzhou on the Yangtze Bank were taken, and General Li Tingzhi was captured and killed. Mongols then invaded Fujian Province. Song Court was frequently on the run, from one island to another, along the coast, and the new Song Emepror died of illness within two years. The now eight-year-old brother, Zhao Bing, was made the new emperor Di-bing in AD 1278. Note Di-bing had no posthumous imperial title at all. Chen Yizhong died in Hainan, Lu Xiufu was made leftside prime minister. When the Mongols attacked again, Song Court fled to Yashan, somewhere near Macao. Mongol General Zhang Hongfan led a surprise attack at Chaoyang (Chaoshan areas, Guangdong Province) and captured Wen Tianxiang who later wrote the famous poem entitled 'Ling Ding Yang' or 'Lingding Sea'. At Hainan, Zhang Shijie nailed together his fleet, trying to defend the straits. Zhang Shijie declined Zhang Hongfan's invitation for surrender. After a defeat, Zhang Shijie broke through the siege with 16 ships. When chased by the Mongols, Lu Xiufu, with young emperor on his back, jumped into the sea with emperor on his back after driving his family into the sea. Zhang Shijie met with a hurricane near Hailingshan Mountain, preyed that his ship sink should Heaven intend to capsize Song Dynasty, and died when his ship was sunken. Song Dynasty officially ended in AD 1279, after a total of 320 years, including 152 years in southern China. Song royal tombs would be dug up by a Central Asian monk for treasures. Khubilai Khan declared the dynasty of Yuan ("first" or "beginning") in this year. In Sichuan Prov, as said by Liu-sha-he, Mongols sacked Chengdu city for a second time and left 1.4 million skeletons. Liu-sha-he cited Yuan Dynasty's Heh Qingquan in stating that Mongol army killed Chengdu people in batches of 50 and repeatedly pierced the dead bodies to make sure victims had been actually killed. (Liu-sha-he also had comments on Di[1] barbarians' massacring Chengdu in 301 AD as well as rebel Zhang Xianzhong's slaughter in AD 1644.) The Yuan Dynasty (AD 1261-1368) Khubilai Khan obtained his throne without a proper assembly, and hence he had lost the kind of mandate over ruling other Mongol khanates. By moving the capital to Peking from Karakorum (rebuilt by Ogedei in AD 1235), he had changed the old Mongol yasaq. In the very beginning, Jochi's son, Batu, ruled the region to the north and west of Lake Balkash (extending from Hungary to Kirghiz Plains, and from lower Danube to Caucasus); Chagadai was given the southwestern region to the east of River Amu-darya and to the southeast of River Syr-Darya, including Afghanistan, Turkestan, the former Naiman territories around the Altai, and central Siberia; Ogedei was awarded China and East Asia; Tului, the youngest of the four sons, was to have central Mongolia. Later, Tului sons exterminated the ruling of Ogedei descendants and diminished the domain of Ogedei descendants, and Chagadai domain was curtailed; Hulegu was given the territories beyond the Oxus River and the Hindu Kush. Nominally, Khubilai Khan was in charge of all khanates: 'Amu-darya Xingsheng' was in charge of Ilkhante and Kipchak Khanate; 'Lingbei (north ridge) Xingsheng' was in charge of Ogedei Khanate [Tacheng]; and two 'yuan shuai (marshal)' offices were in charge of Chagadai Khanate [Ili]. A separate 'Liaoyang Xingsheng' was in charge of Manchuria. After declaring his dynasty of Yuan, Khubilai Khan could only be considered a ruler of China and Mongolia. Before subjugating Southern Song, Kubilai sent a fleet of 150 boats against Japan in AD 1274. Marco Polo supposedly had travelled to and stayed in China during the period of AD 1275 - 1292. (Some Chinese scholars double-checked Marco's records with official Mongol history and validated the authenticity of Marco accounts.) Two years after the 1279 conquest of Southern Song, Kubilai's empress, an Onggirat woman, passed away. Mongol khans had a custom of marrying Onggirat women, a convention passed down from Genghis Khan. A niece of the empress would become the new empress. But Khubilai, though getting older, chose to go to the capital of Shang-du (i.e., Kaiping) for sake of indulging himself in concubines there (i.e., concubines from past emperors). Kubilai hired a Muslim as his finance minister, and this person, A-he-ma, had done his best to exploit the people in iron and salt trades. A-he-ma nepotism would include over 500 officials across the country. A-he-ma would later be killed by a 'qian hu' who issued an order in the name of crown prince. Khubilai then renovated politics a bit by ordering Guo Shoujing to recompile calendar, promoting overseas trading, and inviting Confucian descendant as academy official. Rebellions broke out in coastal China of Fujian and Guangdong. Owing to rumors about Song revival, Khubilai relocated former Song Emperor Gongdi (now Duke Yingguo-gong) to Shang-du and ordered ex-Song prime minister Wen Tianxiang be executed should he refuse to surrender. Wen Tianxiang wrote a poem, stating that "Confucius proposed that one should die for compassion (Ren) and Mencius suggested that one should die for righteousness (Yi). Only when righteousness is fully exhausted will the compassion be derived. What should I endeavour after educating myself with so many books of the ancient saints? However, I am sure that I feel no guilty about myself from this death moment on." (Confucius wording for 'Ren' should mean a broader sense of human perfection, similar to nirvana in Buddhism. 'Ren' also meant nucleus in Chinese, as used for the nucleus of various fruits like apple.) Khubilai, impressed by this poem, would confer a title of Duke Lulingjun-gong on Wen Tianxiang posthumously. Invasion of Japan In AD 1281, Kubilai sent another expedition, with more than 160,000 soldiers, to Japan, but a typhoon would destroy the fleet, with those soldiers already on Japanese shore mostly killed by Japanese. (Japanese only spared the Southern Chinese and made them into slaves. Later, three Chinese fled to the continent.) The idea to have contact with Japan started in AD 1265 when Koryo emissary, Zhao Yi, told Khubilai that Japan could be reached. The second year, Khubilai sent He De and Yin Hong to Japan via Koryo where King Wang Zhi ordered his people accompany them on the sea trip. He De and Yin Hong failed to get in touch with any Japanese official and returned home. Khubilai then sent Pan Hu to Japan where Pan Hu stayed for 6 months; but Pan did not get to see any Japanese official. In AD 1269, Koryo minister Lin Yan usurped the kingdom, and Khubilai sent over 10,000 army for sake of accompanying Koryo King back to the throne. Then, Khubilai sent Zhao Liangbi to Japan where Zhao met a Japanese governor; Zhao was told that the Japanese refused to meet the prior Mongol emissaries because the Koreans had repeatedly said that the Mongols intended to invade Japan. The Japanese governor then suggested that Zhao Liangbi return to China since Japanese capital was too far away. Zhao ordered that his follower and Japanese emissaries return to China first. Yao Shu and Xu Heng advised Khubilai that the Japanese emissary had come to China for sake of detecting the military might of the Mongols and recommended to Khubilai that he treat the Japanese the same way the Japanese treated the Mongol emissary. Japanese emissary returned to Japan without seeing Khubilai. Zhao Liangbi returned to China then, but was ordered to make one more trip to Japan. Japan was ruled by the shogunate at that time, and the national policy was to close off the seashore. In AD 1274, Koryo King passed away. Khubilai married over his daughter to the new Koryo king and then ordered that Koryo send an auxiliary force of 5,000 on a campaign against Japan. Khubilai altogether assembled 900 ships and an army of 20,000 for invading Japan. However, the Japanese refused to fight the Mongols; the Mongol army retreated after running out of arrows and capturing a few Japanese. (See http://www.fascinatingearth.com/Kamikaze%20-%20Divine%20Wind.htm. for alternative account of the first invasion.) The next year, Khubilai sent Du Shizhong and He Wenzhu to Japan, but the Japanese again refused to receive them. In AD 1280, Du Shizhong was dispatched to Japan again, but the Japanese minister killed Du after being enraged by the letter from Khubilai. Khubuilai then ordered rightside prime minister A-lou-han and Fan Wenhu lead an army of over 100,000 on a campaign against Japan. (Alternative accounts claimed nearly "4,500 ships equipped with about 145,000 troops"). A-lou-han died on route in Koryo. Khubilai then ordered leftside prime minister An-ta-ha to substitue for the position of dead A-lou-han. However, Fan Wenhu had already started the war on his own initiative. Before arriving at an outer island near the Japanese coast by July, 30-40% of the ships, under the command of 'wan hu' Li Debiao, had already fled towards Koryo as a result of huge sea winds (called "divine wind" or kamikaze in Japanese). When the hurricane blew again, Fan Wenhu also fled to Koryo on August 1st. A lower level official, 'bai hu' (officer in charge of 100 soldiers), would be in charge of the remaining Mongol army, about 100,000 people. When this 'bai hu' ordered that the Mongols landed on the island to cut trees for repairing the ships, the Japanese made an assault on them. One third of the Mongols were killed, one third drowned in the seas, and one third taken prisoners. Out of the 20-30,000 prisoners, only 10,000 Southern Chinese were spared. One Southern Chinese, by the name of Yu Chang, fled home to report the defeat. Two more Chinese, Muo Qing and Wu Wanwu, fled to the continent, too. Fan Wenhu later blamed the defeat on 'wan hu' (officer in charge of 10,000 soldiers) Li Debiao, and Khubilai could not locate Li Debiao since Li had dispersed his soldiers and hid himself in Koryo as a civilian. Then, Khubilai ordered a new campaign against Japan, and this was only halted when he shifted his priority to the campaign against Champa. Champa & Annam Champa, located to the south of Annam, refused to acknowledge being a vassal of the Mongols. Mongols, under Suodu, departed Canton with over thousand ships. Champa boasted an army of 200,000. After being defeated by the Mongols, Champa prince fled to the mountains and sent a minister to the Mongol camp for surrender. Unguarded, Suodu was later defeated by a Champa ambush. Suodu requested for relief army. Khubilai ordered that his ninth son, Duohuan, i.e., King of Zhennan (i.e., quelling the south), lead an army southward via Annam. Annam King agreed to supply grains, but refused to lend the path to the Mongols. The brother of Annam King, Chen Jun, took charge in fighting the Mongols. Annam King sent over one thousand ships to aid his brother. After several rounds of fighting, Annam King requested again that Mongols leave Annam per the treaty signed with Mengke Khan before. Mongols attacked the Annam camp and took over the capital. Annam King fled, and one brother by the name of Chen Yiji surrendered. Mongols met with shortage of grain and pestilence in Annam capital and hence called off the campaign. When fleeing northward, Annam army attacked them with poisonous arrows at a river crossing. Duohuan barely escaped alive. Suodu, not knowing the retreat of Tuohuan, was ambushed at another river crossing, and Suodu committed suicide by jumping into the river. Having incurred heavy losses, Khubilai was advised not to attack Annam for now. In AD 1284, Khubilai conferred Annam kingship onto Chen Yiji and ordered King of Zhennan Tuohuan to lead a campaign against Annam. Mongols took over Annam capital again, and Annam king fled to the island. By the spring of AD 1288, pestilence erupted again. When Mongols retreated, Annam King assembled a land/sea army of 300,000 and circumvented to the hind of the Mongols. Tuohuan barely escaped alive, and he was reprimanded by Khubilai with a prohibition to return to Peking. Annam king, Tran Nhon-ton (Chen Ri-xuan), however, sent over a gold statute and requested for pardon. Khubilai hence sufficed with the status of Annam. Burma, however, was invaded by another Mongol king. About 12 tribes of so-called 'Xi-nan Man' or Southwestern barbarians were conquered, and Burma acknowledged vassalage. Thailand, India, Southeast Asian statelets, hearing of the Mongol conquest of Burma, sent in tributes. Khubilai intended to invade Japan and Annam again, and one minister, Lu Shirong, who raised money via over-circulation of paper currency, was executed. Crown Prince Zhenjin passed away. Mongol Internal Strife Khubilai exercised only nominal ruling over the rest of khanates. The khanates, however, had already engaged themselves in disputes and wars. In AD 1265, Mamluk Baybars made an alliance with Berke Khan (Batu's brother and successor) against Hulegu. Berke withdrew when Khubilai sent 30,000 troops to aid the Ilkhans. Arik-Buka (Ariq-boeke), the junior brother of Khubilai, had received covert aid from Khan Haidu (grandson of Ogedei, i.e. Mongol Emperor Taizong posthumously). Arik-Buka later surrendered to Khubilai. The grandson of Chagatai, Ya-er-gu, allied himself with Haidu. When Khubilai intended to oust Ya-er-gu, he called on the grandson of Batu (Mengke-temur) and the great grandson of Chagatai Ba-la for sake of an alliance against Haidu of Ogedei Khanate. But Ba-la of Chagatai Khanate colluded with Haidu in attacking Mengke-temur of Kipchak Khanate. When Haidu was defeated by Mengke-temur, Ba-la encroached on the territories of Haidu. Haidu sought reconciliation with Mengke-temur, and Mengke-temur defeated Ba-la. Ba-la then threatened Haidu that he would ask Khubilai to attack him. Haidu sought reconciliation with Ba-la, too. The three khans held an khuritai on the bank of the Talas River, and Haidu was proclaimed as the Grand Khan of the Mongols. Haidu then decreed to the Ilkhanate that they unite against Khubilai. The Ilkhnate khan, A-ba-ha, son of Hulegu, refused to follow Haidu; Haidu and Ba-la invaded eastern Ilkhanate and called upon Mengke-temur to invade Ilkhanate from the northwest. A-ba-ha defeated Haidu and Ba-la, but he failed to beat back Mengke-temur. After A-ba-ha died, his brother would compete with A-ba-ha's son for the throne. Hence, Haidu gained an upper hand in the wars and moreover threatened to invade Khibilai's territories. Khibilai dispatched Prince Ye-mu-han, Mengke's son Xi-li-jie and Muhuali's grandson An-tong against Haidu. Xi-li-jie defected to Haidu and arrested Ye-mu-han and An-tong. Khubilai then ordered prime minister Bayan to counter Haidu who was closing in on Helin. Bayan defeated Xi-li-jie and rescued Ye-mu-han and An-tong. Bayan was recalled by Khubilai when Nai-yan (the great grandson of the brother of Genghis khan) was reported to have planned rebelion in the areas between the Onon and Kerulen rivers of Mongolia. Bayan went to meet Nao-yan and failed to pursuade Nai-yan. Bayan fled back to the Mongol capital. A Mongol minister recommended to Khibilai that once the khanates in the west are pacified, Nai-yan would succumb. This minister hence was ordered to go west and he claimed that Nai-yan had already succumbed to Khubilai. Hence the khanates all succumbed to Khubilai. After that, Khubilai led an army northward against Nai-yan. Seeing that his Mongol soldiers treated Nai-yan soldiers with intimacy, Khubilai adopted the advice of a Chinese in having the Chinese army act as the forerunner column. General Li Ting tricked Nai-yan into a retreat and then defeated Nai-yan's army of 100,000 via a night attack with cannons. Nai-yan was captured and executed. Remnant Nai-yan people then fled to Manchuria and attacked eastern Liaoning Province. Mongol 'Xuanwei-shi of Liaodong' Ta-chu requested for aid, and Khubilai sent his son over. Ta-chu defeated the Nai-yan remnants and chased them westward to the Altai. Ta-chu was conferred the title of 'wan hu'. Nai-yan remnants, however, still remained for some time. Bayan was ordered to counter Haidu who harassed Helin in the west, and Prince Temur (grandson of Khubilai) was ordered to guard the Liao River area in the east. When a Mongol official defected to Haidu and attacked Khubilai's grandson (Gemala) near Hang'aishan Mountain, Khubilai would lead a column to the north. Haidu retreated thereafter. Bayan would continue warfare with Haidu for sometime before he left the post at Helin. Khubilai Seeking For Confucians In AD 1286, Khubilai ordered that yu-shi or Censor Cheng Wenhai go to Southern China and seek ex-Song Confucians. Altogether twenty Confucians, including a Song royal family member (Zhao Meng), were located and delivered to Yuan court. Cheng Wenhai and an ex-Song prime minister Liu Mengyan had both recommended an ex-Song minister, by the name of Xie Fangde, for the Yuan court. Xie refused to eat food on the road to the capital, and he died in Peking after paying respect at the tombs of ex-Song empress and Duke Yingguo-gong (ex-Song emperor). Another Confucian, by the name of Liu Mingyin who was an expert on Daoism and Neo-Confucianism, surrendered salaries to the Yuan court and left for his hometown. Yuan's official in charge of the academy, 'Guo Zi Jian', ji-jiu (wine surrenderer) Xu Heng, had recommended another Confucian, Yang Gongyi, for the job of validating calendar and endorsing the 'Civil Services Exam' system. Yang Gongyi resigned after finishing his work, and he died in the same year as Liu Mingyin, in AD 1293. Xu Heng was guilty of his serving the Mongols and asked his family not to erect a tombstone for him. Khubilai conferred Xu Heng the title of 'si-tu' and Duke Weiguo-gong posthumously for his contributions in reviving Confucianism and the spirits of Archduke of Zhou Dynasty. Invading Java, Declaring Amnesty, and Khubilai Death Khubilai replaced a prime minister (Sangge) when he found out about the corruption. Khubilai quelled numerous rebellions in southern Chinese provinces. In January of AD 1293, Kubilai sent an army of 30,000 to Java and defeated the local ruler, only to be driven off by a Javanese ally. Khubilai thought about invading Annam again in AD 1293 because the new Annam king had bullied Mongol emissary in AD 1291 and refused to come to Yuan court to pay respect. When a meteorite was spotted in the sky, Khubilai inquired with his minister (Buwusu) about how to revert the Heaven's omen as to his possible death. Buwusu cited Han Emperor Wendi's seeking repentance when 29 mountain quakes occurred in the same day and sun eclipse occurred in the year. Khubilai recited Wendi's "Decree In Regards To Sun Eclipse", opened royal grain barns for aiding hunger-stricken people, and declared a general amnesty. When Khubilai fell ill again, Prime Minister Bayan was recalled to the capital from Datong. On February 18, 1294, Kubilai died at the age of eighty, after a reign of 35 years. Khubilai was given the posthumous title of Emperor Shizu. Emperor Chengzong (Borjigin Temur, reign AD 1294-1307) With the help of Bayan, Khubilai's grandson, Temur, was proclaimed the successor, i.e., Emperor Chengzong, after the Mongol court went through a power vaccum for a few months. Temur gave his father (Zhenjin) the posthumous title of Emperor Yuzong. Temur released Annam emissary to show his goodwill. Temur conferred the title of 'tai shi' on Yuexi-temur, 'tai fu' on Bayan, and 'tai bao' on Yue-chi-cha-er. Bayan, who previously commanded 200,000 troops against Song, passed away in this year at the age of 59. In AD 1296, rebellion erupted in Jiangxi Prov. The next year, Buddhist monastery on Wutaishan Mountain was completed at a cost of over 10,000 human lives. Phagsba's desciple was responsible for pushing this project. (At the times of Khubilai, around AD 1271, Phagsba was made imperial tutor, and Tibetan buddhism was made the national religion. Phagsba's department, zong zhi yuan, in charge of religion and Tibet, was upgraded to xuan zheng yuan, the same level as the three Mongol branches of shu mi yuan, zhong shu sheng and yu shi tai. Phagsba's brother, Qia-na-duo-ji, was conferred the title of King of Bailan in charge of Tibetan area. (Bailan was the name of an ancient Qiangci tribe.) Phagsba was responsible for devising the new Mongol script, with 41 letters. Phagsba was conferred the title of 'Da Bao Fa Wang', i.e., grand treasure king for enforcing laws.) After the completion of Wutaishan Monastery, Empress Onggirat led a huge column onto the Wutaishan Mountain. A Chinese official rebuked the rampant behaviors of buddhist monks from the West (including Tibet, Chinese Turkistan, India and Central Asia). Successors of Chinggis - Continuing Conquests
written by Ah Xiang |
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Li Hongzhang's Poem After 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki:
Copyright 1998-2006: This website expresses the personal opinions of the author. In addition to author's comments, extensive citations and quotes of ancient Chinese classics (available at http://www.sinica.edu.tw/ftms-bin/ftmsw3) were presented via transcribing and paraphrasing Classical Chinese language into the English language. Whenever possible, links and URLs are provided to give credit and reference to ideas borrowed elsewhere. This website may be used or reproduced in any form or by any means, with or without prior written permission, on the pre-condition that acknowledgement or reciprocal link is expressively provided. All rights reserved. WARNING: Some of the pictures, charts and graphs posted on this website came from copyrighted materials. Any citation or usage in print format or for financial gain could be subject to fine, penalties or sanctions without the original owner's consent. |
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